Electrophysiological and Morphological Characterization of Potentiated Synapses at the Micro and Nanoscale

2012/2013Col termine generale di “plasticità sinaptica” si intendono tutti i meccanismi che stanno alla base della capacità del sistema nervoso di plasmarsi a seguito della sua maturazione e a fronte di stimoli esterni. Variazioni nella forma e nelle dimensioni oltre che l’instaurazione di nuove sinapsi o l’eliminazione di altre (sinaptogenesi) sono i meccanismi che regolano la plasticità sinaptica. Il sistema nervoso centrale è in grado di mettere in atto fenomeni di plasticità sinaptica in grado di modificarne la struttura e la funzionalità sia a corto che a lungo termine. Uno dei più studiati meccanismi cellulari alla base della memoria e dell’apprendimento è il potenziamento a lungo termine (Long Term Potentiation – LTP), una forma di plasticità neuronale che porta a un incremento dell’efficienza della trasmissione sinaptica durevole nel tempo. A livello cellulare, l’LTP aumenta la capacità di due neuroni di comunicare attraverso le sinapsi. Il meccanismo molecolare alla base di tale aumento dell’efficienza della trasmissione sinaptica non è univocamente stabilito, questo in parte è dovuto al fatto che l’LTP è determinato da diversi meccanismi che variano in base alla specie e alla regione del cervello in cui viene indotto. Una volta innescato, l’LTP conduce a varie modificazioni postsinaptiche, tra cui sintesi di nuovi recettori, nascita di nuove sinapsi (in particolare a livello del recettore glutamatergico NMDA) e cambiamenti a livello delle spine dendritiche (Engert and Bonhoeffer, 1999). Ragionevolmente, per indurre potenziamento a lungo termine è necessario che la membrana postsinaptica sia depolarizzata nell’intervallo di tempo in cui il terminale presinaptico libera glutammato: la depolarizzazione rimuove il blocco degli ioni magnesio dai recettori NMDA consentendo il passaggio (oltre al sodio e al potassio) anche agli ioni calcio. Il calcio è l'elemento centrale del processo perché, una volta raggiunta una certa concentrazione nella cellula, è in grado di attivare un processo per cui i recettori AMPA presenti nella cellula vengono trasferiti sulla membrana e i recettori già presenti lasciano passare una maggiore quantità di ioni. La sinapsi risulta così rinforzata. Questa condizione è stata sperimentalmente dimostrata su campioni di fettine di ippocampo usando una stimolazione elettrica (tetanica) (Nishi et al., 2001). Dopo la stimolazione tetanica, il neurone bersaglio rafforzato dall’LTP è molto più responsivo e produce un aumento dell’ampiezza delle correnti eccitatorie post-sinaptiche (Excitatory Post Synaptic Currents – EPSC) che perdura nel tempo. Questo comportamento trova spiegazione in una modificazione delle spine dendritiche sia nella forma, sia nel numero e dimensione. L’attività del mio dottorato di ricerca è stata condotta nell’ambito del progetto NanoMosquito, il cui scopo prinicipale consiste nell’indurre fenomeni di plasticità neuronale in cellule dissociate d’ippocampo di ratto e, successivamente, nel caratterizzare le mutazioni funzionali (tramite la tecnica elettrofisiologica del patch-clamping) e morfologiche, in scala micro e nanometrica, utilizzando tecniche quali la microscopia confocale e la microscopia a forza atomica (Atomic Force Microscopy – AFM). Diverse stimolazioni sono state testate per carcare di capire quali potessero indurre potenziamento della rete. Studi di plasticità vengono condotti in genere su fettine organotipiche, ma queste rendono impossibile studiare i cambiamenti che avvengono a livello delle spine dendritiche con tecniche in scala nanometrica, quali l’AFM. Diversi protocolli di stimolazione (treni a bassa frequenza, theta burst) sono stati utilizzati in esperimenti a doppio patch (due elettrodi usati in simultanea) su due cellule neuronali vicinali. Questo tipo di stimolazione ha portato però solo a un numero limitato di sinapsi potenziate e per questo motive abbiamo deciso di uitlizzare una particolare forma di plasticità sinaptica che prende il nome di Spike-Timing Dependent Plasticity (STDP). In questo tipo di plasticità il preciso ordine temporale tra i potenziali d’azione presinaptici e postsinaptici determina i cambiamenti che avverrano a livello della sinapsi stessa; per ottenere un potenziamento a livello del contatto sinaptico, il potenziale d’azione a livello postsinaptico deve seguire la depolarizzazione a livello presinaptico in una finestra temporale che va dai 5 ai 20 millisecondi (Bi and Poo, 1998). Anche in questo caso, monitorando successivamente l’ampiezza delle EPSCs, solo poche sinpasi andavano incontro a plasticità e il meccanismo che sta alla base di questo deve essere ancora determinato. Al contrario, il Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF), membro della famiglia delle neurotrofine e abbondantemente espresso nel sistema nervoso centrale (SNC), sta emergendo come un importante mediatore nella sopravvivenza, sviluppo e funzione dei neuroni (Lu, 2003). Colture embrionali dissociate di ippocampo sono state per la prima volta trattate cronicamente con BDNF promuovendo la formazione di nuove sinapsi, sia a livello eccitatorio che inibitorio, con conseguente aumento dell’attività spontanea dell’intera rete. Il BDNF inoltre si pensa induca modificazioni morfologiche sia nella complessità dell’albero dendritico che nel promuovere la crescita delle terminazioni assonali (Vicario-Abejon et al., 1998). Registrazioni elettrofisiologiche sono state effettuate per monitare l’attività spontanea della rete: nel dettaglio sono state misurate le EPSC e le IPSC tra neuroni incubati in BDNF e campioni di controllo mentre registrazioni doppie sono state effettuate per confrontare la percentuale di accoppiamento. Abbiamo così visto come il BDNF rafforzi l’attività sinaptica della rete e aumenti il numero di connessioni sinaptiche eccitatorie. Registrazioni paired-pulse ed esperimenti di imaging con FM1-43 hanno invece dimostrato come il BDNF induca anche delle modificazioni nella probabilità di rilascio vescicolare, in quanto, anche in questo caso l’ampiezza della risposta risulta aumentata nelle colture incubate. Marcando i neruoni (β-tubulin III) abbiamo visto anche come il BDNF aumenti la sopravvivenza neuronale, sopratutto a carico delle cellule piramidali, riconosciute dalla loro forma. Inoltre, eseprimenti condottti su cellule transfettate con cds-BDNF hanno confermato ulteriormente i nostril dati su come il BDNF aumenti la trasmissione sinpatica. La caratteristica comune di tutti questi diversi approcci è stata quella di indurre modifiche funzionali nelle connessioni sinaptiche eccitatorie. Successivamente l'induzione della plasticità sinaptica, la microscopia a scansione sarà utilizzata per seguire in tempo reale i cambiamenti morfologici delle sinapsi.The brain is programmed to drive behaviour by exactly wiring the appropriate neuronal circuits. Wiring and rewiring of neuronal circuits widely depends on the orchestrated changes in the strengths of synaptic contacts. For many years, neuroscientists believed that neurogenesis - the generation of new neurons – and establishment of new neuronal connections was restricted to early brain development (Segal et al, 2005). New findings have challenged this view and currently many neuroscientists believe that the capacity for circuitry rearrangement is maintained throughout life. However the mechanisms that controls plasticity in the adult brain are still not entirely clear. The connection between neurons is named synapse. The synapse is the most fundamental unit of information transmission in the nervous system. Information storage, including all forms of memory and behavioural adaptation, are believed to come out from changes in neuronal transmission, both in the short-term and the long-term, a property known as synaptic plasticity. Synaptic plasticity is a highly regulated process, refers to all the mechanisms that underlie the ability of the nervous system to adapt to external stimuli. Variations in the shape and size as well as establishment of new synapses or the elimination of others (synaptogenesis) are the mechanisms that regulate synaptic plasticity. Thus, understanding the mechanisms underlying synaptic plasticity may help to apprehend general learning and memory processes. Changes in synaptic plasticity are achieved by changes in inhibitory or excitatory neurotransmission or both. This thesis deals with the modulation of excitatory neurotransmission. The principal excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain is glutamate. The regulation of glutamate-mediated excitatory neurotransmission has been shown to play a critical role in many aspects of synaptic plasticity. One of the most studied cellular mechanisms is the long-term potentiation (LTP), a form of synaptic plasticity that leads to an increase in the efficiency of synaptic transmission (Engert et al., 1999). The induction of LTP is classically achieved by tetanic stimulation but it is also possible to induce chemically a long-term potentiation of the synaptic efficacy, thus enhancing a larger number of synapses compared to electrical stimulation. The work of this thesis has been conducted in the wider framework of the NanoMosquito project, whose major aim was to combine electrophysiological measurements, scanning probe microscopy (AFM-Atomic Force Microscopy) and fluorescence microscopy in order to develop new generation neurophysiological tool to understand neuronal plasticity at the nanoscale. Studies of synaptic plasticity are often carried out in slices of hippocampus, but these prevent to study change in nanoscale with a surface-microscopy technique such is AFM: dissociated hippocampal neurons lend themselves well for this purpose. Understanding in detail the mechanism of action of these processes may be of critical importance not only for a detailed view of memory related processes but also in the case of some diseases: being able to control synaptic plasticity may help to restore a functional connectivity lost, for example, in the case of brain lesions. The first part of this thesis handles the setting of an electrophysiological stimulation to induce neuronal plasticity, starting from the stimulations trains usually performed in hippocampal slices, such as slow frequency stimulation and theta burst. Long-term synaptic modifications can be induced also by a particular form of synaptic plasticity named Spike-Timing Dependent Plasticity (STDP) where the precise timing and the order of presynaptic and postsynaptic action potentials determine the magnitude and the direction of the changes in synaptic strength (Bi and Poo, 1998). I have tested trains of with a delay of 5, 10 and 20 milliseconds between pre- and postsynaptic neuron. By monitoring the amplitude and frequency of the EPSCs, responses varied from no changes to potentiation but just in a small sample of coupled neurons where we measured a strong increase in the amplitude and frequency of spontaneous EPSCs after the stimulation. The cellular basis that gives rise to the induction of such synaptic modifications remains to be determined. On the other hand, BDNF ability to mediate activity-dependent modifications in synaptic strength (Bolton et al., 2000; Vicario-Abejón et al., 1998) has recently received considerable attention; in particular the acute BDNF effects on excitatory synapses have been the object of an increasing amount of studies. On the contrary, the role of BDNF in regulating long-lasting changes in synaptic function is comparably less investigated and may have large impact on post injury alteration of synaptic networks and neuronal rescue. To address this issue, during my PhD, I studied the long-term (chronic) effects of BDNF on AMPA receptor mediated excitatory synaptic transmission and on neuronal survival in vitro. Dissociated rat (P2-P3) hippocampal cultures were chronically treated (4 days) with BDNF between 4 and 8 days in vitro (DIV). Single and dual patch-clamp recordings in whole-cell configuration were used to monitor spontaneous and evoked post synaptic currents (IPSCs and EPSCs) in hippocampal network grown in culture for 8-10 DIV. Excitatory PSCs (EPSC) were identified by their kinetic (fast decay τ) and pharmacology (CNQX sensitivity). EPSCs recorded from BDNF-treated cultures show a strong increase in their mean frequency and amplitude when compared to controls untreated sister cultures. In the presence of TTX, miniature excitatory PSCs (mEPSCs) in BDNF treated networks still displayed an increase in both frequency and amplitude. In BDNF-treated cultures pair recordings showed an increased probability of finding coupled pairs. Paired pulse (20 Hz) experiments and FM1-43 fluorescence imaging suggested that BDNF treatment increased the probability of release. Immunofluorescence (β-tubulin III) visualization of neurons allowed to quantify neuronal density and showed that BDNF mediated an increase (40%) in neuronal survival, when compared to controls, together with an increase in the pyramidal neuron/interneuron ratio (0.33 for BDNF, 0.19 for controls). Additionally, neuronal cells were transfected with different BDNF-GFP expressing vectors to gain insights in the specific molecular mechanisms involved in long term BDNF effects on synapses. However the common feature of all these functional modifications is in the direction of a pronounced potentiation of excitatory synaptic connections. Subsequently to the induction of synaptic plasticity, scanning probe microscopy would be used to follow in real time morphological changes of synapses undergoing potentiation or neuronal processes development with submicrometrical resolution in all 3 dimensions. Final goal of the entire project, whereof this thesis is the fundamental initial step, will be the development of new paradigms to evaluate and induce synaptic plasticity on specific synapses to govern in a controlled way neuronal outgrowth and synaptogenesis.XXVI Ciclo198

Impact of Magnetite Nanowires on In Vitro Hippocampal Neural Networks

Nanomaterials design, synthesis, and characterization are ever-expanding approaches toward developing biodevices or neural interfaces to treat neurological diseases. The ability of nanomaterials features to tune neuronal networks’ morphology or functionality is still under study. In this work, we unveil how interfacing mammalian brain cultured neurons and iron oxide nanowires’ (NWs) orientation affect neuronal and glial densities and network activity. Iron oxide NWs were synthesized by electrodeposition, fixing the diameter to 100 nm and the length to 1 μm. Scanning electron microscopy, Raman, and contact angle measurements were performed to characterize the NWs’ morphology, chemical composition, and hydrophilicity. Hippocampal cultures were seeded on NWs devices, and after 14 days, the cell morphology was studied by immunocytochemistry and confocal microscopy. Live calcium imaging was performed to study neuronal activity. Using random nanowires (R-NWs), higher neuronal and glial cell densities were obtained compared with the control and vertical nanowires (V-NWs), while using V-NWs, more stellate glial cells were found. R-NWs produced a reduction in neuronal activity, while V-NWs increased the neuronal network activity, possibly due to a higher neuronal maturity and a lower number of GABAergic neurons, respectively. These results highlight the potential of NWs manipulations to design ad hoc regenerative interfaces

Advances in Nano Neuroscience: From Nanomaterials to Nanotools

During the last decades, neuroscientists have increasingly exploited a variety of artificial, de-novo synthesized materials with controlled nano-sized features. For instance, a renewed interest in the development of prostheses or neural interfaces was driven by the availability of novel nanomaterials that enabled the fabrication of implantable bioelectronics interfaces with reduced side effects and increased integration with the target biological tissue. The peculiar physical-chemical properties of nanomaterials have also contributed to the engineering of novel imaging devices toward sophisticated experimental settings, to smart fabricated scaffolds and microelectrodes, or other tools ultimately aimed at a better understanding of neural tissue functions. In this review, we focus on nanomaterials and specifically on carbon-based nanomaterials, such as carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and graphene. While these materials raise potential safety concerns, they represent a tremendous technological opportunity for the restoration of neuronal functions. We then describe nanotools such as nanowires and nano-modified MEA for high-performance electrophysiological recording and stimulation of neuronal electrical activity. We finally focus on the fabrication of three-dimensional synthetic nanostructures, used as substrates to interface biological cells and tissues in vitro and in vivo

3D Organotypic Spinal Cultures: Exploring Neuron and Neuroglia Responses Upon Prolonged Exposure to Graphene Oxide

Graphene-based nanomaterials are increasingly engineered as components of biosensors, interfaces or drug delivery platforms in neuro-repair strategies. In these developments, the mostly used derivative of graphene is graphene oxide (GO). To tailor the safe development of GO nanosheets, we need to model in vitro tissue responses, and in particular the reactivity of microglia, a sub-population of neuroglia that acts as the first active immune response, when challenged by GO. Here, we investigated central nervous system (CNS) tissue reactivity upon long-term exposure to GO nanosheets in 3D culture models. We used the mouse organotypic spinal cord cultures, ideally suited for studying long-term interference with cues delivered at controlled times and concentrations. In cultured spinal segments, the normal presence, distribution and maturation of anatomically distinct classes of neurons and resident neuroglial cells are preserved. Organotypic explants were developed for 2 weeks embedded in fibrin glue alone or presenting GO nanosheets at 10, 25 and 50 \u3bcg/mL. We addressed the impact of such treatments on premotor synaptic activity monitored by patch clamp recordings of ventral interneurons. We investigated by immunofluorescence and confocal microscopy the accompanying glial responses to GO exposure, focusing on resident microglia, tested in organotypic spinal slices and in isolated neuroglia cultures. Our results suggest that microglia reactivity to accumulation of GO flakes, maybe due to active phagocytosis, may trim down synaptic activity, although in the absence of an effective activation of inflammatory response and in the absence of neuronal cell death

BDNF impact on synaptic dynamics: extra or intracellular long-term release differently regulates cultured hippocampal synapses

Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) signalling contributes to the formation, maturation and plasticity of Central Nervous System (CNS) synapses. Acute exposure of cultured brain circuits to BDNF leads to up-regulation of glutamatergic neuro-transmission, by the accurate tuning of pre and post synaptic features, leading to structural and functional synaptic changes. Chronic BDNF treatment has been comparatively less investigated, besides it may represent a therapeutic option to obtain rescue of post-injury alterations of synaptic networks. In this study we used a paradigm of BDNF long-term (4 days) incubation to assess in hippocampal post-natal neurons in culture, the ability of such a treatment to alter synapses. By patch clamp recordings we describe the augmented function of excitatory neurotransmission and we further explore by live imaging the presynaptic changes brought about by long-term BDNF. In our study, exogenous long-term BDNF exposure of post-natal neurons did not affect inhibitory neurotransmission. We further compare, by genetic manipulations of cultured neurons and BDNF release, intracellular overexpression of this neurotrophin at the same developmental age. We describe for the first-time differences in synaptic modulation by BDNF with respect to exogenous or intracellular release paradigms. Such a finding holds the potential of influencing the design of future therapeutic strategies

Impaired Functional Connectivity Underlies Fragile X Syndrome

Fragile X syndrome (FXS), the most common form of inherited intellectual disability, is caused by a developmentally regulated silencing of the FMR1 gene, but its effect on human neuronal network development and function is not fully understood. Here, we isolated isogenic human embryonic stem cell (hESC) subclones-one with a full FX mutation and one that is free of the mutation (control) but shares the same genetic background-differentiated them into induced neurons (iNs) by forced expression of NEUROG-1, and compared the functional properties of the derived neuronal networks. High-throughput image analysis demonstrates that FX-iNs have significantly smaller cell bodies and reduced arborizations than the control. Both FX- and control-neurons can discharge repetitive action potentials, and FX neuronal networks are also able to generate spontaneous excitatory synaptic currents with slight differences from the control, demonstrating that iNs generate more mature neuronal networks than the previously used protocols. MEA analysis demonstrated that FX networks are hyperexcitable with significantly higher spontaneous burst-firing activity compared to the control. Most importantly, cross-correlation analysis enabled quantification of network connectivity to demonstrate that the FX neuronal networks are significantly less synchronous than the control, which can explain the origin of the development of intellectual dysfunction associated with FXS

Tuning the Reduction of Graphene Oxide Nanoflakes Differently Affects Neuronal Networks in the Zebrafish

The increasing engineering of biomedical devices and the design of drug-delivery platforms enriched by graphene-based components demand careful investigations of the impact of graphene-related materials (GRMs) on the nervous system. In addition, the enhanced diffusion of GRM-based products and technologies that might favor the dispersion in the environment of GRMs nanoparticles urgently requires the potential neurotoxicity of these compounds to be addressed. One of the challenges in providing definite evidence supporting the harmful or safe use of GRMs is addressing the variety of this family of materials, with GRMs differing for size and chemistry. Such a diversity impairs reaching a unique and predictive picture of the effects of GRMs on the nervous system. Here, by exploiting the thermal reduction of graphene oxide nanoflakes (GO) to generate materials with different oxygen/carbon ratios, we used a high-throughput analysis of early-stage zebrafish locomotor behavior to investigate if modifications of a specific GRM chemical property influenced how these nanomaterials affect vertebrate sensory-motor neurophysiology—exposing zebrafish to GO downregulated their swimming performance. Conversely, reduced GO (rGO) treatments boosted locomotor activity. We concluded that the tuning of single GRM chemical properties is sufficient to produce differential effects on nervous system physiology, likely interfering with different signaling pathways

Graphene Oxide Nanosheets Reshape Synaptic Function in Cultured Brain Networks

Graphene offers promising advantages for biomedical applications. However, adoption of graphene technology in biomedicine also poses important challenges in terms of understanding cell responses, cellular uptake, or the intracellular fate of soluble graphene derivatives. In the biological microenvironment, graphene nanosheets might interact with exposed cellular and subcellular structures, resulting in unexpected regulation of sophisticated biological signaling. More broadly, biomedical devices based on the design of these 2D planar nanostructures for interventions in the central nervous system require an accurate understanding of their interactions with the neuronal milieu. Here, we describe the ability of graphene oxide nanosheets to down-regulate neuronal signaling without affecting cell viability

Polystyrene nanopillars with inbuilt carbon nanotubes enable synaptic modulation and stimulation in interfaced neuronal networks

The use of nanostructured materials and nanosized-topographies has the potential to impact the performance of implantable biodevices, including neural interfaces, enhancing their sensitivity and selectivity, while reducing tissue reactivity. As a result, current trends in biosensor technology require the effective ability to improve devices with controlled nanostructures. Nanoimprint lithography to pattern surfaces with high-density and high aspect ratio nanopillars (NPs) made of polystyrene (PS-NP, insulating), or of a polystyrene/carbon-nanotube nanocomposite (PS-CNT-NP, electrically conductive) are exploited. Both substrates are challenged with cultured primary neurons. They are demonstrated to support the development of suspended synaptic networks at the NPs' interfaces characterized by a reduction in proliferating neuroglia, and a boost in neuronal emergent electrical activity when compared to flat controls. The authors successfully exploit their conductive PS-CNT-NPs to stimulate cultured cells electrically. The ability of both nanostructured surfaces to interface tissue explants isolated from the mouse spinal cord is then tested. The integration of the neuronal circuits with the NP topology, the suspended nature of the cultured networks, the reduced neuroglia formation, and the higher network activity together with the ability to deliver electrical stimuli via PS-CNT-NP reveal such platforms as promising designs to implement on neuro-prosthetic or neurostimulation devices

Effect of SARS-CoV-2 proteins on vascular permeability.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)-CoV-2 infection leads to severe disease associated with cytokine storm, vascular dysfunction, coagulation, and progressive lung damage. It affects several vital organs, seemingly through a pathological effect on endothelial cells. The SARS-CoV-2 genome encodes 29 proteins, whose contribution to the disease manifestations, and especially endothelial complications, is unknown. We cloned and expressed 26 of these proteins in human cells and characterized the endothelial response to overexpression of each, individually. Whereas most proteins induced significant changes in endothelial permeability, nsp2, nsp5_c145a (catalytic dead mutant of nsp5), and nsp7 also reduced CD31, and increased von Willebrand factor expression and IL-6, suggesting endothelial dysfunction. Using propagation-based analysis of a protein–protein interaction (PPI) network, we predicted the endothelial proteins affected by the viral proteins that potentially mediate these effects. We further applied our PPI model to identify the role of each SARS-CoV-2 protein in other tissues affected by coronavirus disease (COVID-19). While vali-dating the PPI network model, we found that the tight junction (TJ) proteins cadherin-5, ZO-1, and β-catenin are affected by nsp2, nsp5_c145a, and nsp7 consistent with the model prediction. Overall, this work identifies the SARS-CoV-2 proteins that might be most detrimental in terms of endothelial dysfunction, thereby shedding light on vascular aspects of COVID-1