How the techniques of molecular biology are developed from natural systems

A striking characteristic of the highly successful techniques in molecular biology is that they are derived from natural occurring systems. RNA interference (RNAi), for example, utilises a mechanism that evolved in eukaryotes to destroy foreign nucleic acid. Other examples include restriction enzymes, the polymerase chain reaction, fluorescent proteins and CRISPR-Cas9. I propose that natural molecular mechanisms are exploited by biologists for their effectors’ (protein or nucleic acid) activity and biological specificity (protein or nucleic acid can cause precise reactions). I also show that the developmental trajectory of novel techniques in molecular biology, such as RNAi, is four characteristic phases. The first phase is discovery of a biological phenomenon. The second is identification of the mechanism’s trigger(s), the effector and biological specificity. The third is the application of the technique. The final phase is the maturation and refinement of the molecular biology technique. The development of new molecular biology techniques from nature is crucial for both biological and biomedical research

How the techniques of molecular biology are developed from natural systems

A striking characteristic of the highly successful techniques in molecular biology is that they are derived from natural systems. RNA interference (RNAi), for example, utilises a mechanism that evolved in eukaryotes to destroy foreign nucleic acid. Other examples include restriction enzymes, the polymerase chain reaction, green fluorescent protein and CRISPR-Cas. I propose that biologists exploit natural molecular mechanisms for their effectors’ (protein or nucleic acid) activity and biological specificity (protein or nucleic acid can cause precise reactions). I also show that the developmental trajectory of novel techniques in molecular biology, such as RNAi, is four characteristic phases. The first phase is discovery of a biological phenomenon, typically as curiosity driven research. The second is identification of the mechanism’s trigger(s), the effector and biological specificity. The third is the application of the technique. The final phase is the maturation and refinement of the molecular biology technique. The development of new molecular biology techniques from nature is crucial for biological research. These techniques transform scientific knowledge and generate new knowledge

How the techniques of molecular biology are developed from natural systems

A striking characteristic of the highly successful techniques in molecular biology is that they are derived from natural systems. RNA interference (RNAi), for example, utilises a mechanism that evolved in eukaryotes to destroy foreign nucleic acid. Other examples include restriction enzymes, the polymerase chain reaction, green fluorescent protein and CRISPR-Cas. I propose that biologists exploit natural molecular mechanisms for their effectors’ (protein or nucleic acid) activity and biological specificity (protein or nucleic acid can cause precise reactions). I also show that the developmental trajectory of novel techniques in molecular biology, such as RNAi, is four characteristic phases. The first phase is discovery of a biological phenomenon, typically as curiosity driven research. The second is identification of the mechanism’s trigger(s), the effector and biological specificity. The third is the application of the technique. The final phase is the maturation and refinement of the molecular biology technique. The development of new molecular biology techniques from nature is crucial for biological research. These techniques transform scientific knowledge and generate new knowledge

How the techniques of molecular biology are developed from natural systems

A striking characteristic of the highly successful techniques in molecular biology is that they are derived from natural occurring systems. RNA interference (RNAi), for example, utilises a mechanism that evolved in eukaryotes to destroy foreign nucleic acid. Other examples include restriction enzymes, the polymerase chain reaction, fluorescent proteins and CRISPR-Cas9. I propose that natural molecular mechanisms are exploited by biologists for their effectors’ (protein or nucleic acid) activity and biological specificity (protein or nucleic acid can cause precise reactions). I also show that the developmental trajectory of novel techniques in molecular biology, such as RNAi, is four characteristic phases. The first phase is discovery of a biological phenomenon. The second is identification of the mechanism’s trigger(s), the effector and biological specificity. The third is the application of the technique. The final phase is the maturation and refinement of the molecular biology technique. The development of new molecular biology techniques from nature is crucial for both biological and biomedical research

How molecular techniques are developed from natural systems

A striking characteristic of the molecular techniques of genetics is that they are derived from natural occurring systems. RNA interference, for example, utilizes a mechanism that evolved in eukaryotes to destroy foreign nucleic acid. Other case studies I highlight are restriction enzymes, DNA sequencing, polymerase chain reaction, gene targeting, fluorescent proteins (such as, green fluorescent protein), induced pluripotent stem cells, and clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats-CRISPR associated 9. The natural systems’ strategy for technique development means that biologists utilize the activity of a mechanism's effector (protein or RNA) and exploit biological specificity (protein or nucleic acid can cause precise reactions). I also argue that the developmental trajectory of novel molecular techniques, such as RNA interference, has 4 characteristic phases. The first phase is discovery of a biological phenomenon. The second phase is identification of the biological mechanism's trigger(s): the effector and biological specificity. The third phase is the application of the trigger(s) as a technique. The final phase is the maturation and refinement of the technique. Developing new molecular techniques from nature is crucial for future genetic research

The genetic and mechanistic basis of worker sterility in the honey bee

Worker sterility is a defining feature of social insects. However, the evolution of sterility is a conundrum because workers ‘altruistically’ forgo personal reproduction. To understand how worker sterility has evolved, it is important to identify both its genetic and mechanistic basis. In this thesis I utilise an ‘evo-devo’ framework to propose that the mechanistic basis of worker sterility can be conceptualised as ‘reproductive control points’ – specific mechanisms that reduce the reproductive capacity of workers. I provide empirical evidence for two control points in honey bee (Apis mellifera) workers. The first control point is when the queen’s pheromone triggers the abortion of adult honey bee workers’ oocytes at mid-oogenesis. I show that when workers are exposed to the queen’s pheromone, their germ cells degenerate midway through development. I also find that the candidate gene, Anarchy, is important for the mid-oogenesis control point where it causes increased programmed cell death activity in the ovaries of workers exposed to a queen. The second control point is the loss of ovarioles in adult honey bee workers. I show that the number of ovarioles declines as honey bee workers age, due to programmed cell death. The mechanism underlying all the reproductive control points, and therefore worker sterility, is likely to be programmed cell death. My thesis is therefore an important contribution to a mechanistic understanding of worker sterility, and provides insights into how this trait emerged from a solitary ancestor. In addition, this interdisciplinary thesis reflects upon my empirical research by examining how key molecular biology techniques are developed. I conclude that the techniques are developed in a characteristic, staged process with easily-identified common elements. The techniques of molecular biology lead to immense scientific progress and my examination of their development provides a compelling case for the importance of basic research

ESM titles and captions from The dynamic association between ovariole loss and sterility in adult honeybee workers

In the social insects, ovary state (the presence or absence of mature oocytes) and ovary size (the number of ovarioles) are often used as proxies for the reproductive capacity of an individual worker. Ovary size is assumed to be fixed post-eclosion whereas ovary state is demonstrably plastic post-eclosion. Here, we show that in fact ovary size declines as honeybee workers age. This finding is robust across two honeybee species: <i>Apis mellifera</i> and <i>A. cerana</i>. The ovariole loss is likely to be due to the regression of particular ovarioles via programmed cell death. We also provide further support for the observation that honeybee workers with activated ovaries (mature oocytes present) most commonly have five ovarioles rather than a greater or smaller number. This result suggests that workers with more than five ovarioles are unable to physiologically support more than five activated ovarioles and that workers with fewer than five ovarioles are below a threshold necessary for ovary activation. As a worker's ovariole number declines with age, studies on worker ovariole number need to take this plasticity into account