THE IMPACT OF WELFARE REFORM ACROSS METROPOLITAN AND NON-METROPOLITAN AREAS: A NON-PARAMETRIC ANALYSIS

Recent public cash assistance reform measures designed to induce recipients to leave welfare and enter the workforce represent the most important change in social welfare policy in recent decades. Single female-headed families with children (SFHFwC), who represent 53 percent of non-metropolitan families with children living below the poverty line, are the major target group of reform measures. Recent studies have expressed concerns that heads of SFHFwC may face particular difficulties in transiting from welfare to work in non-metropolitan areas due to relatively weak demand for low skill female labor, greater childcare and transportation barriers to workforce participation, and economies of scale in the delivery of public programs to assist in transition. Despite these concerns, non-metropolitan SFHFwC have shown significant improvements in a number of economic indicators of family welfare since the initial implementation of reforms. However, the underlying causes of economic gains, and the relationship between gains and reform measures, remains unclear. This paper examines shifts from 1993 to 1999 in the distribution of real per-capita total receipts of non-metropolitan and metropolitan area SFHFwC with data from the U.S. Current Population Survey Annual Demographic Files. Nonparametric density estimates reveal a significant positive rightward shift in the per-capita distribution of total receipts of non-metropolitan SFHFwC occurred from 1993 to 1999. These gains are largely attributable to a rightward shift in the distribution of the earnings portion of total per-capita receipts, as the public assistance component of total receipts shifted leftward over the same period. The contributions of structural change in workforce welfare participation as well as underlying individual and area attribute shifts, are then examined using nonparametric density re-weighting methods. Specifically, five counterfactual experiments are conducted. The first experiment simulates the counterfactual distribution of non-metropolitan 1999 per-capita total receipts if the frequency of workforce welfare participation states in the 1999 data were at 1993 levels, but the distribution of per-capita receipts within each of four possible states of workforce and welfare participation remained at 1999 levels. The second counterfactual density simulates the 1999 non-metropolitan area distribution of per-capita receipts that would have prevailed if structural relationships between workforce welfare participation decisions and area and individual attributes were at 1993 levels, but area and individual attributes remained at 1999 levels. The third counterfactual experiment simulates the 1999 distribution of per-capita receipts that would have prevailed with both the 1993 structural relationship between workforce welfare participation and area and individual attributes and 1993 area and individual attribute levels. The fourth counterfactual experiment simulates 1999 distributions of per-capita receipts that would have prevailed if area unemployment and individual attributes in each workforce welfare state remained at 1993 levels, but the distribution of workforce welfare states were at 1999 levels. The final counterfactual density presents the 1999 per-capita receipts distribution that would have prevailed with 1999 workforce welfare participation rates arising from 1993 levels of unemployment in non-metropolitan areas. These experiments suggest that structural change in the relationship between area and individual attributes and workforce welfare program participation decisions from 1993 to 1999 accounts for only a small portion of observed shifts in total per-capita receipts. Changes in individual and area attributes, by contrast, account for much of the observed rightward shift in non-metropolitan per-capita total receipts from 1993 to 1999. Further, SFHFwC economic gains appear to arise from increased education levels and other individual attribute shifts, rather than more favorable area economic conditions. Gains should, therefore, be relatively resilient to future area economic downturns.Public Economics,

Widening participation to higher education in the East of England: a review of recent regional and national research

‘Widening participation’ covers a range of actions: appropriate evaluation can be very different for each, and as much widening participation activity is recent, there is not yet a great deal of evidence of outcomes on which to base an evaluation. Activities which improve application to higher education include mentoring by current HE students and participation in summer schools, though summer schools are currently not always targeted at the most appropriate groups. Non-traditional entry qualifications into higher education, particularly vocational qualifications, are misunderstood and undervalued, and this is a significant barrier to widening participation. Access courses are successful as a route into higher education and through to a qualification; participation rates are different in different regions and there are suggestions of unmet demand. Part time higher education, flexible learning and distance learning are undervalued as routes through higher education. Retention is a key issue only now being seriously addressed in the literature. Student finance and student debt are major barriers to widening participation and confusion over the introduction of the new fee and grant system is a current and urgent concer

Making & Missing Opportunities: Part-Time Higher Education in the East of England

The research examines the extent to which undergraduate level part-time higher education contributes to economic and social development in the East of England. The regional economic strategy has called attention to the importance of higher education; but full-time study is simply not an option for the majority of people who did not, for whatever reason, progress to higher education from school and college. Part-time study, however, offers them the opportunity to engage with higher education whilst continuing to maintain the obligations of their family, social and working lives though it remains typically undervalued and under-resourced. The statistical study compares part-time and full-time study in the East of England and provides comparative analyses which establish that almost half of the total undergraduate population in the region and almost a third of those studying for a first degree are engaged in part-time study and that part-time students are far more likely to remain within the region on graduating than their full-time peers. Part time provision in the region is dominated by two institutions – the Open University and Anglia Ruskin University. This suggests that other institutions place less value and invest less in part-time study. These issues, and their complexities, are explored in greater detail through a series of narrative case studies illustrating the experiences of twelve part-time students from the region. These provide insight into the different reasons people have for studying part-time, the range of viable options available to them, the costs of part-time study and the factors that influence choice. Examples of part-time study in the private sector are also included in the report and we include an insight into the employers’ perspective of part-time study. The final sections address the ways in which individuals, institutions and industry can invest in part-time higher education and recommendations for realising its potential

Non-rainfall moisture inputs in the Knersvlakte: Methodology and preliminary findings

Dew, fog/mist and water vapour adsorption, the 3 vectors by which non-rainfall water can be added to soil water, may play a critical role in ecosystem function in arid zones. This paper explores a methodology for overcoming the challenges of measuring small daily inputs of non-rainfall water in the harsh environment of the Knersvlakte on the west coast of South Africa. An automatic micro-lysimeter (MLS) – an experimental arrangement of a sensitive electro-mechanical load cell, suitable electronic amplification and signal conditioning, and a microcontroller was developed. A microcomputer was employed for overall system control and data logging. Initial field work took place between late September and November 2006 on Arizona Farm, 30 km north of Vanrhynsdorp. In March 2007, subsequent work began at the Ratelgat BIOTA observatory. Manual soil weight sampling corresponded well with theoretical dew maximums, with measured maximum and minimum dew/fog of 0.4 mm and 0.08 mm (±0.08 mm) (both in September 2006). Measurements from the first prototype MLS were marred by large (± 0.24 mm) error figures, signal dropout from the analog to digital converter, and insufficient range at the required resolution. The subsequent prototype (field tested in March 2007 and still in use) provides much smaller errors (± 0.05 mm). Calibration testing at Ratelgat indicates maximum overnight dew/fog contributions of 0.35 mm (±0.05 mm), which corresponds with theoretical calculations as well as field measurements in other arid zones. Maximum dew/fog derived soil water occurs between 07:00 and 09:15. Surprisingly, soil weight, as a consequence of dew/fog inputs, starts to increase shortly after 17:20. These are preliminary findings and longer term testing and validation are ongoing at present. The role of quartz pebbles and small succulent plants in the interception of non-rainfall water is still to be explored.Keywords: non-rainfall water, dew, fog, micro-lysimeter, Knersvlakte, West Coas

Indigenous children's multimodal communication of emotions through visual imagery

Billions of images are shared worldwide on the internet via social platforms like Instagram, Pinterest, Snapchat and Twitter every few days. The social web and mobile devices make it quicker and easier than ever before for young people to communicate emotions through digital images. There is a need for greater knowledge of how to educate children and young people formally in the sophisticated, multimodal language of emotions. This includes semiotic choices in visual composition, such as gaze, facial expression, posture, framing, actor-goal relations, camera angles, backgrounds, props, lighting, shadows and colour. In particular, enabling Indigenous students to interpret and communicate emotions in contemporary ways is vital because multimodal language skills are central to academic, behavioural and social outcomes. This paper reports original research of urban, Indigenous, upper primary students' visual imagery at school. A series of full-day, digital imagery workshops were conducted over several weeks with 56 students. The photography workshops formed part of a three-year participatory community research project with an Indigenous school in Southeast Queensland, Australia. The archived student images were organised and analysed to identify attitudinal meanings from the appraisal framework, tracing types and subtypes of affect, and their positive and negative forms. The research has significant implications for teaching students how to design high-quality, visual and digital images to evoke a wide range of positive and negative emotions, with particular considerations for Australian Indigenous students

Fulfilling the promise of applied developmental science: Is it time to reconsider our approach?

The promise of applied developmental science is that we can use scientific methods to promote positive human development and improve the lives of children and families. However, the present political environment in the United States makes the creation of research-informed federal policy difficult, even when the evidence supporting a given policy is unequivocal. In this essay, we hope to begin a conversation about how we, as applied developmental scientists, may modify our approach in order to best fulfill the promise of applied developmental science. To begin this conversation, we discuss the potential for establishing long-term partnerships with smaller entities, including state and municipal governments and non-governmental organizations to narrow the gap between what we know about children and families and the policies and programs that impact them. This \u27bottom-up\u27 approach has a long lineage in applied developmental science, and is currently enjoying a renaissance through the burgeoning interest in researcher-practitioner partnerships. Whether implicitly or explicitly, these partnerships often incorporate a systems perspective on children\u27s development; here, we review why embracing a systems perspective may increase the likelihood of crafting policies and programs that can improve the lives of children and families

The definition and measurement of neurological fatigue in multiple sclerosis

Background Fatigue is one of the most complex and severely disabling symptoms in multiple sclerosis (MS). There is an absence of a clear definition of fatigue and Uttle consensus exists on its relationship to the other features of MS. The underlying pathophysiology of MS fatigue is unknown and there are no effective treatments. Fatigue has been thought of as difficult to define and usually considered to be multidimensional. These two points, however, immediately present a paradox for the measurement of fatigue, since the fundamental principles of measurement require both strict definition and unidimensionality. The central hypothesis was that the phenomenon of fatigue, as a symptom in multiple sclerosis, could be defined in a detailed and coherent way and could then be measured, in order to facilitate understanding of its pathophysiology. The hypothesis was proven and in doing so many questions regarding the fundamental nature of atigue in MS were answered. It also provided the basis from which to pose questions, in a logical manner, regarding the underlying pathophysiology of the symptom