The role of anion in the impact of tetraethylammonium salts on soil phosphatase activities

Quaternary ammonium salts (QAS) are increasingly commonly used in the chemical industry. The diverse usage of these compounds results in high possibility of their penetration to the environment. The aim of this study was to compare the effect of three salts with tetraethylammonium cation with different anions such as chloride [TEA][Cl], bromide [TEA][Br], and iodine [TEA][I] on the activity of phosphatases in loamy sand. Organic carbon and total nitrogen content in the soil were 8.71 and 0.97 g·kg-1, respectively. The salts were applied to soil at doses of 0, 0.05, 0.50, and 5.00 mmol·kg-1. The samples were adjusted to 60% maximum water holding capacity, and they were incubated at a temperature of 20°C. Activities of acid phosphomonoesterase, alkaline phopshomonoesterase, phosphotriesterase, and inorganic pyrophosphatase were assayed on day 1, 7, 14, 28, 56, and 112. The obtained results demonstrated that the presence of [TEA] in the soil at the low dose (0.05 mmol·kg-1) may stimulate the activity of soil phosphatases. Higher doses of the soil had mostly inhibitory effect on phosphatases activity. Among the determined enzymes, phosphomonoesterases were the most sensitive to salts containing [TEA] cation. A considerable contribution of the anion type on the formation of activity of the determined enzymes of phosphorus compound changes. The strongest effect characterized tetraethylammonium bromide [TEA][Br]

Activity of dehydrogenases in clay soil exposed to quaternary ammonium salts with iodine anion

The aim of the research was to compare the effects of four to quaternary ammonium salts (QAS) with iodine anion: tetramethylammonium iodine [TMA][I], tetraethylammonium iodine [TEA][I], tetrapropylammonium iodine [TEA][I], tetrabutylammonium iodine [TBA][I]. The experiment was carried out on sandy clay loam samples with organic carbon content of 33.82 g·kg-1, and pH in 1 M KCl 7.13. QAS were added to soil at the dosages of: 0, 10, 100, and 1000 mg·kg-1. Activity of dehydrogenases was assayed on days: 1, 14, 35, and 70. Obtained results have shown that the soil treatment with quaternary ammonium salts with iodine anion caused decrease in activity of dehydrogenases. This inhibition increased with increase of QAS dosages, and increase with alkyl chains in cations. Analysis of variance η2 indicated, that type of QAS had the biggest impact on formation of activity of dehydrogenases in soil

Ionic Liquids as Environmental Pollutants—Analysis of the Effect of Tetrabutylammonium Chloride on the Growth and Development of Wheat and Cucumber

Ionic liquids are a huge group of chemical compounds that have found, or may, in the future, find, applications in various industries. These compounds are characterized by excellent physical, chemical, and biological properties, but a big problem is their environmental impact. One of the representatives of this group of compounds is tetrabutylammonium chloride ([TBA][Cl]). In this present study, the effects of [TBA][Cl] were evaluated on two popular plant species—a monocotyledonous plant—wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and a dicotyledonous plant—cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.). The results showed that the compound caused a pronounced inhibition of plant growth and roots, as well as plant fresh weight yield. An increase in plant dry weight was observed at the same time. Despite the decrease in the content of photosynthetic pigments, no major changes were observed in chlorophyll fluorescence. All observed changes were strongly related to the applied concentration of the compound

Environmental and toxicological risk of using quaternary ammonium salts

Czwartorzędowe ciecze jonowe (CSA), ze względu na ich szerokie zastosowania, głównie jako surfaktanty i środki odkażające, stanowią zagrożenie zarówno dla środowiska, jak i dla zdrowia człowieka. Artykuł przedstawia charakterystykę, zastosowanie i występowanie w środowisku CSA, ich aktywność przeciwdrobnoustrojową, a także toksyczność tych związków dla środowiska i człowieka. Około 25% stosowanych CSA dostaje się do środowiska głownie ze ściekami. Szczególnie wrażliwe na te związki są organizmy wodne, zwłaszcza glony, natomiast ich obecność w glebie powoduje pojawienie się w roślinach stresu oksydacyjnego. Człowiek narażony jest na kontakt z CSA głównie w miejscach ich produkcji i zastosowania. Najczęstszym objawem ekspozycji na CSA jest kontaktowe zapalenie skóry, a także podrażnienie dróg oddechowych oraz alergie. Ponadto istnieją możliwości wywołania przez CSA mutacji prowadzących do zmian nowotworowych.The wide use of quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs), mostly as surfactants and disinfectants, may cause a threat both to the environment and human health. This article presents characteristics and use of QACs, their occurrence in the environment, antimicrobial activity and toxicity to the environment and the man. Approximately 25% of used QACs enter the environment mainly with sewage. Aquatic organisms, especially algae, are very sensitive to these compounds. The presence of QACs in soil causes oxidative stress in plans. The people are exposed to the contact with these substances mainly in places of their production and usage. The most common symptoms of exposure to QACs are contact dermatitis, irritation of respiratory system and allergies. Furthermore, QACs may induce mutations and becoming cancerogenic

RESPONSE OF SOIL PHOSPHATASES TO THREE DIFFERENT IONIC LIQUIDS WITH HEXAFLUOROPHOSPHATE ANION

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of three different ionic liquids (ILs): 1-butyl-1-methylpyrrolidynium hexafluorophosphate [Pyrrol][PF6], 1-butyl-1-methylopiperydynium hexafluorophosphate [Piper][PF6] and 1-butyl-4-methylopirydynium hexafluorophosphate [Piryd][PF6] on phosphatase activity in soil. The pot experiment was carried out on loamy sand (Corg content 9.0 g/kg) with spring barley as a tested plant. The ILs was used at the dosages of 0, 1, 10, 50, 100, 400, 700 and 1000 mg/kg dry matter (DM). On day 14, soil samples were collected and activities of alkaline phosphomonoesterase, acid phosphomonoesterase, phosphotriesterase and inorganic pyrophosphatase were determined. Based on the analysis of the effect measure η2 by variance analysis – ANOVA – the percentage shares of all variable factors affecting the activity of phosphatases were also defined. Obtained results showed that the application of different dosages of all ILs caused mainly non-significant changes in phosphatase activity. Changes in activity of phosphatases were often not dependent on IL dosages. The most sensitive for ILs were both phosphomonoesterases. The type of ILs had the highest percentage participation in formation of acid phosphomonoesterase activity, while dosages of ILs affected mainly alkaline phosphomonoesterase and phosphotriesterase activities

RESPONSE OF SOIL PHOSPHATASES TO THREE DIFFERENT IONIC LIQUIDS WITH HEXAFLUOROPHOSPHATE ANION

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of three different ionic liquids (ILs): 1-butyl-1-methylpyrrolidynium hexafluorophosphate [Pyrrol][PF6], 1-butyl-1-methylopiperydynium hexafluorophosphate [Piper][PF6] and 1-butyl-4-methylopirydynium hexafluorophosphate [Piryd][PF6] on phosphatase activity in soil. The pot experiment was carried out on loamy sand (Corg content 9.0 g/kg) with spring barley as a tested plant. The ILs was used at the dosages of 0, 1, 10, 50, 100, 400, 700 and 1000 mg/kg dry matter (DM). On day 14, soil samples were collected and activities of alkaline phosphomonoesterase, acid phosphomonoesterase, phosphotriesterase and inorganic pyrophosphatase were determined. Based on the analysis of the effect measure η2 by variance analysis – ANOVA – the percentage shares of all variable factors affecting the activity of phosphatases were also defined. Obtained results showed that the application of different dosages of all ILs caused mainly non-significant changes in phosphatase activity. Changes in activity of phosphatases were often not dependent on IL dosages. The most sensitive for ILs were both phosphomonoesterases. The type of ILs had the highest percentage participation in formation of acid phosphomonoesterase activity, while dosages of ILs affected mainly alkaline phosphomonoesterase and phosphotriesterase activities

Phytotoxicity and Effect of Ionic Liquids on Antioxidant Parameters in Spring Barley Seedlings: The Impact of Exposure Time

The influence of the ionic liquids (ILs) tetrabutylammonium bromide [TBA][Br], 1-butyl-3-methylimidazole bromide [BMIM][Br], and tetrabutylphosphonium bromide [TBP][Br] added at different concentrations to the soil were studied for the growth and development of spring barley seedlings. Samples were harvested at three different time points: day 7, 14, and 21 after addition of ILs. The results show that [TBP][Br] was the most toxic. The introduction of this IL at the dose of 100 mg kg−1 of soil DM decreased the growth of seedlings at all test dates. The addition of the studied ILs to the soil in higher doses resulted in an increase in peroxidase and catalase activity, which may indicate the occurrence of oxidative stress in plants. An increase in the content of plant dry matter weight, contents of H2O2 and proline and a decrease in the content of photosynthetic pigments in barley seedlings were also observed. The malondialdehyde content and superoxide dismutase activity fluctuated randomly during the experiment. As a result, it was found that the phytotoxicity of ILs and the magnitude of oxidative stress in seedlings depended more on the added doses of these compounds than on the measurement date

CHANGES OF FLUORIDE CONTENT IN SAND FROM SANDBOXES LOCATED ON PLAYGROUNDS IN POLICE (WEST POMERANIA, POLAND)

The aim of the study was to determine fluoride content in sand from sandboxes in Police town (West Pomerania, Poland). This area is exposed to excessive emissions of fluoride compounds because of the proximity of chemical plants. The sand samples were collected five times in a period from March to November in 2016. Fluoride content was determined using the potentiometric method with an ion-selective fluoride electrode. The obtained results showed that fluoride content was ranged from 0.09 to 1.48 mg·kg-1 dm. The lowest fluoride content was recorded in the sand collected in place, which was the closest to the emitter, and the largest in the samples from sandbox, which was furthest from the emitter. Analyzing the changes in the content of this element over time, the largest fluoride concentration of sand occurred in July or September depending on location. Pearson correlation coefficient at p < 0.05 (r = 0.925) showed a significant positive correlation between fluoride content and the distance from fluoride emitter

Ibuprofen and Ketoprofen—Inert Drugs or Potential Environmental Hazard?

Ibuprofen (IBU) and ketoprofen (KET) are among the world’s most popular and widely used nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Due to their high usage, these drugs have entered the environment, including the soil, and, like any other chemical compound, can have a negative effect on it. Therefore, an attempt was made to evaluate the effects of these two popular drugs on soil bacteria and fungi, the bivalve crustaceans (Heterocipris incongruens) and the growth and development of spring barley. The tested drugs did not show any negative effects on the total bacterial abundance. Effects were observed on the growth and survival of H. incongruens and on the abundance of fungi in the soil at the highest concentrations tested. The presence of IBU and KET in the soil in which spring barley was cultivated caused an increase in the activity of antioxidant enzymes catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and guaiacol peroxidase (POD); an increase in the content of proline and ascorbic acid (AsA) in the seedlings of this grain; and a decrease in the yield of fresh plant weight, especially at the application of concentrations of 100 and 1000 mg·kg−1 of soil’s dry weight (DW). Effects on barley seed germination potential and germination capacity, plant dry matter content, assimilation pigment content and malondialdehyde (MDA) were also observed at the highest concentrations