Parental depression and child well-being: Young children's self-reports helped addressing biases in parent reports

Objectives Effects of maternal and paternal depression on child development are typically evaluated using parental reports of child problems. Yet, parental reports may be biased. Methods In a population-based cohort, parents reported lifetime depression (N = 3,178) and depressive symptoms (N = 3,131). Child emotional and behavioral problems were assessed at age 6 years by child self-report using the Berkeley Puppet Interview, by mother report using the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL), and at age 3 years by father and mother reported CBCLs. Results Both maternal and paternal depression was associated with more child problems. Associations were of similar strength if child problems were obtained by self-reports. However, if parents reported about their own depression or depressive symptoms and about their child's problems, estimates were generally stronger for associations with the reporting parent's depression as the determinant. For instance, if mothers reported child emotional problems, associations were stronger for maternal (B = 0.27; 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.19, 0.35) than for paternal lifetime depression (B = 0.12; 95% CI = 0.02, 0.21; P-value for difference = 0.02). Conclusion Depression of mothers and fathers affects young children's well-being. However, if parents reported about their own depression and about child problems, associations were inflated. To accurately estimate effects of parental depression, multiple-source data including young children's perspectives must be considered

Parenting, young children\u27s behavioral self‐regulation and the quality of their peer relationships

The quality of young children\u27s peer relationships is important for their development, and it is assumed that parenting and self-regulation skills shape children\u27s behavior when interacting with peers. In this multi-informant-multi-method study, we examined the direct and mediated associations between preschool parenting, children\u27s behavioral self-regulation, and peer aggression and peer relationship problems in elementary school-aged children and extended previous work by examining both positive and negative parenting of both mothers and fathers. In a large community sample (n = 698) of parents and children who were between 1 and 6 years old, we obtained information on observed maternal sensitivity, mother- and father-reported harsh discipline, observed child self-regulation, and child-reported aggression towards peers, peer rejection and victimization. Results from a structural equation model showed that maternal sensitivity was prospectively associated with children\u27s behavioral self-regulation and that lower levels of behavioral self-regulation were associated with higher levels of children\u27s peer aggression and peer relationship problems. However, children\u27s behavioral self-regulation did not mediate the association between maternal sensitivity and peer relationship problems. In addition, higher levels of paternal, but not maternal, harsh discipline were directly associated with more peer relationship problems, but again no mediation was found. The results highlight the importance of maternal sensitivity for children\u27s behavioral self-regulation and the role of paternal harsh discipline for the quality of children\u27s later peer relationships. Our findings suggest it is important to take maternal and paternal parenting practices into account as they might have different effects on the child

Parenting, young children's behavioral self-regulation and the quality of their peer relationships

The quality of young children's peer relationships is important for their development, and it is assumed that parenting and self-regulation skills shape children's behavior when interacting with peers. In this multi-informant-multi-method study, we examined the direct and mediated associations between preschool parenting, children's behavioral self-regulation, and peer aggression and peer relationship problems in elementary school-aged children and extended previous work by examining both positive and negative parenting of both mothers and fathers. In a large community sample (n = 698) of parents and children who were between 1 and 6 years old, we obtained information on observed maternal sensitivity, mother- and father-reported harsh discipline, observed child self-regulation, and child-reported aggression towards peers, peer rejection and victimization. Results from a structural equation model showed that maternal sensitivity was prospectively associated with children's behavioral self-regulation and that lower levels of behavioral self-regulation were associated with higher levels of children's peer aggression and peer relationship problems. However, children's behavioral self-regulation did not mediate the association between maternal sensitivity and peer relationship problems. In addition, higher levels of paternal, but not maternal, harsh discipline were directly associated with more peer relationship problems, but again no mediation was found. The results highlight the importance of maternal sensitivity for children's behavioral self-regulation and the role of paternal harsh discipline for the quality of children's later peer relationships. Our findings suggest it is important to take maternal and paternal parenting practices into account as they might have different effects on the child

Characteristics of the study population.

†<p>measured by the Child Behavior Checklist (parent report).</p>‡<p>measured by the Berkeley Puppet Interview (child self-report).</p

Effect of harsh discipline on emotional problems.

<p><b>Bold</b> numbers represent statistically significant (p<0.05) associations.</p>‡<p>Z-score of the Child Behavior Checklist/1,5-5 measured at age 6.</p>†<p>Z-score of the Berkeley Puppet Interview measured at age 6.</p>$<p>Model adjusted for ethnicity of the child, gender of the child, age of the child, number of children in the household, household income, marital status, highest education of the parents, smoking during pregnancy, parental psychopathology and parental report of family functioning^.</p>□<p>Model additionally adjusted for baseline internalizing/externalizing behavior at age three.</p

Correlational analysis of harsh discipline, emotional and behavioral problems and parental psychopathology.

†<p>Child Behavior Checklist (parent report).</p>‡<p>Mean of mother and father score on the internalizing/externalizing scale.</p>¥<p>Berkeley Puppet Interview (child self-report).</p><p>** p-value <0.001.</p><p>* p-value <0.05.</p

Effect of harsh discipline on behavioral problems.

<p><b>Bold</b> numbers represent statistically significant (p<0.05) associations.</p>‡<p>Z-score of the Child Behavior Checklist/1,5-5 measured at age 6.</p>†<p>Z-score of the Berkeley Puppet Interview measured at age 6.</p>$<p>Model adjusted for ethnicity of the child, gender of the child, age of the child, number of children in the household, household income, marital status, highest education of the parents, smoking during pregnancy, parental psychopathology and parental report of family functioning.</p>□<p>Model additionally adjusted for baseline internalizing/externalizing behavior at age three.</p