Experimental study of the formation and collapse of an overhang in the lateral spread of smouldering peat fires

Smouldering combustion is the driving phenomenon of wildfires in peatlands, and is responsible for large amounts of carbon emissions and haze episodes world wide. Compared to flaming fires, smouldering is slow, low-temperature, flameless, and most persistent, yet it is poorly understood. Peat, as a typical organic soil, is a porous and charring natural fuel, thus prone to smouldering. The spread of smouldering peat fire is a multidimensional phenomenon, including two main components: in-depth vertical and surface lateral spread. In this study, we investigate the lateral spread of peat fire under various moisture and wind conditions. Visual and infrared cameras as well as a thermocouple array are used to measure the temperature profile and the spread rate. For the first time the overhang, where smouldering spreads fastest beneath the free surface, is observed in the laboratory, which helps understand the interaction between oxygen supply and heat losses. The periodic formation and collapse of overhangs is observed. The overhang thickness is found to increase with moisture and wind speed, while the spread rate decreases with moisture and increases with wind speed. A simple theoretical analysis is proposed and shows that the formation of overhang is caused by the spread rate difference between the top and lower peat layers as well as the competition between oxygen supply and heat losses

Self-ignition of natural fuels: can wildfires of carbon-rich soil start by self-heating?

Carbon-rich soils, like histosols or gelisols, cover more than 3% of the Earth's land surface, and store roughly three times more carbon than the Earth's forests. Carbon-rich soils are reactive porous materials, prone to smouldering combustion if the inert and moisture contents are low enough. An example of soil combustion happens in peatlands, where smouldering wildfires are common in both boreal and tropical regions. This work focuses on understanding soil ignition by self-heating, which is due to spontaneous exothermic reactions in the presence of oxygen under certain thermal conditions. We investigate the effect of soil inorganic content by creating under controlled conditions soil samples with inorganic content (IC) ranging from 3% to 86% of dry weight: we use sand as a surrogate of inorganic matter and peat as a surrogate of organic matter. This range is very wide and covers all IC values of known carbon-rich soils on Earth. The experimental results show that self-heating ignition in different soil types is possible, even with the 86% inorganic content, but the tendency to ignite decreases quickly with increasing IC. We report a clear increase in ambient temperature required for ignition as the IC increases. Combining results from 39 thermostatically-controlled oven experiments, totalling 401 h of heating time, with the Frank-Kamenetskii theory of ignition, the lumped chemical kinetic and thermal parameters are determined. We then use these parameters to upscale the laboratory experiments to soil layers of different thicknesses for a range of ambient temperatures ranging from 0 °C to 40 °C. The analysis predicts the critical soil layer thicknesses in nature for self-ignition at various possible environmental temperatures. For example, at 40 °C a soil layer of 3% inorganic content can be ignited through self-heating if it is thicker than 8.8 m, but at 86% IC the layer has to be 1.8 km thick, which is impossible to find in nature. We estimate that the critical IC for a ambient temperature of 40 °C and soil thickness of 50 m is 68%. Because those are extreme values of temperature and thickness, no self-heating ignition of soil can be expected above the 68% threshold of inorganic content. This is the first in-depth experimental quantification of soil self-heating and shows that indeed it is possible that wildfires are initiated by self-heating in some soil types and conditions

Experimental measurement of particle size effects on the self-heating ignition of biomass piles: Homogeneous samples of dust and pellets

Biomass can become an important fuel source for future power generation worldwide. However biomass piles are prone to self-heating and can lead to fire. When storing and transporting biomass, it is usually in the form of pellets which vary in diameter but are on average in the order of 7 mm. However, pellets tend to break up into smaller particles and into dust down to the µm size. For self-heating, size of particles is known to matter but the topic is poorly studied for biomass piles. This work presents an experimental study on the self-heating ignition behaviour of different particle sizes of wheat biomass. We study for the first time homogeneous samples from the dust scale to pellet diameter size, ranging from diameters of 300 µm to 6.5 mm. Experiments are done in an isothermal oven to find minimum ignition temperatures as a function of sample volume. The results are analysed using Frank-Kamenetskii theory. For the homogeneous biomass samples studied, we show that particle diameter variation does not bring a large change in self-heating ignition behaviour. The present work can be used to help quantify size effects on biomass ignition and help address the safety problems of biomass fires

TOWARDS A SUSTAINABLE AND CONTEXT-BASED APPROACH TO ANTI-SEISMIC RETROFITTING TECHNIQUES FOR VERNACULAR ADOBE BUILDINGS IN COLOMBIA

Abstract. In Colombia earthen buildings, mostly adobe, makes up 80% of the national monumental heritage and historic urban centres. Moreover, vernacular earthen techniques have been largely used for dwellings in rural villages, small towns or informal settlements and represent, nowadays, a huge architectural and cultural heritage of the country. Due the brittle behaviour and low ductility of the building material, characterized by both low tensile and bending strength, earth constructions show high seismic vulnerability; nevertheless, though Colombian earthquake hazard level is considered very high, current national seismic building regulations do not include any reference to earthen architecture. Seismic failure mechanisms most frequently occurring to masonry architecture, as adobe buildings rehabilitation techniques and seismic behaviour improvement practices, have been widely published. This paper aims to investigate possible causes associated to failure mechanisms due to common adobe building practices in Colombia and intervention strategies, to be eventually implemented in order to reduce risks. The paper focuses on strategies and technologies for seismic retrofitting, while evaluating their effectiveness and feasibility through 'sustainability' indicators, based on literature quantitative and qualitative data, and strictly related to rural Colombian economic, social and environmental conditions, where available resources are scarce and labour often not qualified

Central scalp projection of the N30 SEP source activity after median nerve stimulation

Conflicting results have been reported about abnormalities of the N30 somatosensory evoked potential (SEP) in movement disorders. In these studies, the N30 amplitude was measured in the frontal scalp region. Our aim was to identify the scalp electrodes recording the genuine activity of the N30 generator. In 18 subjects, we recorded the scalp SEPs from 19 electrodes and found a negative potential around 30 ms reaching its maximal amplitude in the frontal region. However, neither simple visual inspection of the frontal traces nor topographic analysis could distinguish the N24 from the N30 component of the frontal negativity. Brain electrical source analysis of SEPs showed that a four dipolar source model could well explain the scalp SEP distribution. We calculated the scalp field distributions of the source activities as modeled from the scalp recordings and observed that the maximal field distribution reflecting the activity of the N30 source was in the central region, whereas that reflecting the N24 source activity was frontal. We conclude that the negative response recorded around 30 ms in the central traces represents "genuine" N30 source activity, whereas the frontal negativity, which is higher in amplitude, is a mixture of the activities of both the N30 and N24 sources. (C) 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Muscle Nerve 23: 353-360, 2000

BRST Formulation of 4-Monopoles

A supersymmetric gauge invariant action is constructed over any 4-dimensional Riemannian manifold describing Witten's theory of 4-monopoles. The topological supersymmetric algebra closes off-shell. The multiplets include the auxiliary fields and the Wess-Zumino fields in an unusual way, arising naturally from BRST gauge fixing. A new canonical approach over Riemann manifolds is followed, using a Morse function as an euclidean time and taking into account the BRST boundary conditions that come from the BFV formulation. This allows a construction of the effective action starting from gauge principles.Comment: 18 pages, Amste

Interaction of Water and Oxygen Molecules with Phosphorene: An Ab Initio Study

Phosphorene, the 2D form of black phosphorus, has recently attracted interest for optoelectronic and tribological applications. However, its promising properties are affected by the strong tendency of the layers to oxidize in ambient conditions. A significant effort has been made to identify the role of oxygen and water in the oxidation process. In this work, we introduce a first-principles study of the phosphorene phase diagram and provide a quantitative estimate of the interaction of pristine and fully oxidized phosphorene layers with oxygen and water molecules. Specifically, we study oxidized layers with oxygen coverages of 25% and 50% that keep the typical anisotropic structure of the layers. We found that hydroxilated and hydrogenated phosphorene layers are both energetically unfavorable, leading to structural distortions. We also studied the water physisorption on both pristine and oxidized layers, finding that the adsorption energy gain doubled on the oxidized layers, whereas dissociative chemisorption was always energetically unfavorable. At the same time, further oxidation (i.e., the dissociative chemisorption of O (Formula presented.)) was always favorable, even on oxidized layers. Ab initio molecular dynamics simulations of water intercalated between sliding phosphorene layers showed that even under harsh tribological conditions water dissociation was not activated, thus further strengthening the results obtained from our static calculations. Overall, our results provide a quantitative description of the interaction of phosphorene with chemical species that are commonly found in ambient conditions at different concentrations. The phase diagram that we introduced confirms the tendency of phosphorene layers to fully oxidize due to the presence of O (Formula presented.), resulting in a material with improved hydrophilicity, a piece of information that is relevant for the application of phosphorene, e.g., as a solid lubricant. At the same time, the structural deformations found for the H- and OH- terminated layers undermine their electrical, mechanical, and tribological anisotropic properties and, therefore, the usage of phosphorene

On the Interacting Chiral Gauge Field Theory in D=6 and the Off-Shell Equivalence of Dual Born-Infeld-Like Actions

A canonical action describing the interaction of chiral gauge fields in D=6 Minkowski space-time is constructed. In a particular partial gauge fixing it reduces to the action found by Perry and Schwarz. The additional gauge symmetries are used to show the off-shell equivalence of the dimensional reduction to D=5 Minkowski space-time of the chiral gauge field canonical action and the Born-Infeld canonical action describing an interacting D=5 Abelian vector field. Its extension to improve the on-shell equivalence arguments of dual D-brane actions to off-shell ones is discussed.Comment: 18 page

Clinical and neurophysiological abnormalities before and after reconstruction of the anterior cruciate ligament of the knee

Objectives - We aimed to study knee proprioception and somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs) to stimulation of the common peroneal nerve (CPN) in 7 patients with lesion of the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) before and after ACL reconstruction. Materials and methods - We recorded the spinal N14 and scalp P27 potentials in 5 patients, while in the remaining 2 patients we calculated scalp SEP maps by 20 electrodes. The knee proprioception was tested by comparing the sensitivity to movement of both the knees. Results - Before surgery, all patients showed decreased knee position sense and lack of the cortical P27 potential on the side of the ACL lesion. Arthroscopic reconstruction of the ligament improved neither the knee proprioception nor the somatosensory central conduction. Conclusion - We suggest that the loss of the knee mechanoreceptors can be followed by modifications of the central nervous system, which are not compensated by other nervous structures

Supersymmetric exact sequence, heat kernel and super KdV hierarchy

We introduce the free N=1 supersymmetric derivation ring and prove the existence of an exact sequence of supersymmetric rings and linear transformations. We apply necessary and sufficient conditions arising from this exact supersymmetric sequence to obtain the essential relations between conserved quantities, gradients and the N=1 super KdV hierarchy. We combine this algebraic approach with an analytic analysis of the super heat operator.We obtain the explicit expression for the Green's function of the super heat operator in terms of a series expansion and discuss its properties. The expansion is convergent under the assumption of bounded bosonic and fermionic potentials. We show that the asymptotic expansion when $t\to0^+$ of the Green's function for the super heat operator evaluated over its diagonal generates all the members of the N=1 super KdV hierarchy.Comment: 20 pages, to be published in JM