Resource Wars and Conflict Ivory: The Impact of Civil Conflict on Elephants in the Democratic Republic of Congo - The Case of the Okapi Reserve

Human conflict generally has substantial negative impacts on wildlife and conservation. The recent civil war (1995-2006) in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) resulted in a significant loss of wildlife, including elephants, due to institutional collapse, lawlessness and unbridled exploitation of natural resources such as minerals, wood, ivory and bushmeat. We used data from distance sampling surveys conducted before and after the war in a protected forest, the Okapi Faunal Reserve, to document changes in elephant abundance and distribution. We employed Generalized Additive Models to relate changes in elephant distribution to human and environmental factors. Populations declined by nearly fifty percent coinciding with a major increase in elephant poaching as indicated by reports of ivory trade during the war. Our results suggest that humans influenced elephant distribution far more than habitat, both before and after the war, but post-war models explained more of the variation. Elephant abundance declined more, closer to the park boundary and to areas of intense human activity. After the war, elephant densities were relatively higher in the centre of the park where they were better protected, suggesting that this area may have acted as a refuge. In other sites in Eastern DRC, where no protection was provided, elephants were even more decimated. Post-war dynamics, such as weakened institutions, human movements and availability of weapons, continue to affect elephants. Survival of remaining populations and recovery will be determined by these persistent factors and by new threats associated with growing human populations and exploitation of natural resources. Prioritizing wildlife protection, curbing illegal trade in ivory and bushmeat, and strengthening national institutions and organizations in charge of conservation will be crucial to counter these threats

Natural and anthropogenic influences on elephants and other ungulates in the Congo forest

In Central Africa, wildlife populations are increasingly influenced by humans, even in protected areas. This raises the question how spatial patterns of wildlife abundance are affected by human activities and habitat and how these patterns change over time. I address these questions by developing spatial models combined with line transect survey data in two forest sites in Central Africa. In the Odzala National Park in the Republic of Congo, I examine elephant dung abundance data in relation to human threats and protection. In the Okapi Faunal Reserve in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), I developed spatio-temporal models for elephants and other forest ungulates to examine temporal changes in their densities as a result of changes in human impact in the context of a civil war that took place in the region between the two surveys. Covariates related to human influences dominated the observed patterns at both sites. In Odzala, elephant dung densities were mainly influenced by protection. They were higher inside the protected area and closer to anti-poaching patrol routes. In the Okapi Faunal Reserve, populations of all ungulate species declined severely between the two survey periods. Declines in elephant abundance were relatively higher closer to the park boundary and areas of intense human activity. After the war, elephant densities were higher in a small area in the centre of the park that may have acted as a refuge. Forest duikers also declined, but the spatial pattern of their decline was different than that of elephants. Densities dropped more in the southern part of the reserve, probably due to pre-exisisting higher levels of hunting there. Besides explaining spatial patterns of abundance, spatial modeling was shown to be useful in improving the precision of density estimates and in predicting densities across a surface in the Odzala National Park. In summary, humans overwhelmingly determined the distribution and abundance of ungulates in both sites. The civil war in DRC led to a dramatic increase in elephant poaching for ivory which caused a major decline in elephant populations. It aggravated the bushmeat hunting of duikers whose populations also declined sharply.Science, Faculty ofZoology, Department ofGraduat

Rewilding, the wildlife trade and human conflict

This chapter examines the relationships between conflict, wildlife trade, and rewilding. Trade in wildlife, both legal and illegal, has increased exponentially in the last few decades, which has led, at least in part, to the decimation of numerous wildlife species, including keystone species that have an important role in the functioning of ecosystems. This affects trophic cascades, leading to the degradation of ecosystems and decreased ecosystem services. Conflict and civil strife have also been increasing globally. In most cases conflict results in a decline of species mainly through increased trade in wildlife for food and revenue, habitat degradation, and a breakdown in law and order. If rewilding is to be effective in restoring trophic cascades and ecosystem functioning, addressing the social and ecological impacts of conflict and wildlife trade should be seen as an integral part of rewilding. Interventions may include controlling trade and hunting, involving local communities, promoting sustainable wildlife use and curbing illegal wildlife trade

Introduction: what is rewilding?

Researchers and practitioners active within the field of rewilding have been grappling with a definition for many years. A continual increase in rewilding projects and research, and a time of complex global issues, change and uncertainty, presents a difficult context in which to define a new field. As an introduction to the book, this chapter presents a definition of and guiding principles for rewilding which is based on work by the IUCN CEM’s Rewilding Thematic Group. The chapter also discusses uncertainties, contradictions, and debates within the concept of rewilding, with reference to chapters in the book. Ultimately, the chapter presents rewilding as a movement for change and presents the book as an exploration of the kinds of change that rewilding is looking to promote—ecological, socio-cultural, or systemic—at various levels from local to global, looking inwards at how we undertake research and practice, and outwards at ecosystems, landscapes, and society at large

Rewilding and human health

Well-functioning, healthy ecosystems are fundamental to all life on earth including that of humans. We depend on, and benefit from, a multitude of ecosystem services, such as clean air and water, healthy soils, fuel, food and other renewable natural resources, climate, and disease regulation. Human health is ultimately dependent on the provision of these services. The SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) pandemic that began in 2019 has been an urgent reminder of the complex interactions between humans and the environment. Zoonotic diseases such as COVID-19 are a leading cause of human death and illness globally, with the majority of zoonotic transmissions coming from domestic animals with spillovers of pathogens from wild reservoirs to humans occurring sporadically. However, most new zoonotic diseases originate in wildlife, and they are expected to increase in the future due to greater contacts between humans and their livestock and wildlife. In this chapter, the authors summarise the current knowledge regarding the relationship between environmental degradation and zoonoses, offer perspectives on what research and action need to focus on to reduce the possibility of future pandemics, and consider the role of rewilding in relation to zoonotic disease mitigation

Bird community responses to changes in vegetation caused by increasing large mammal populations in the Serengeti woodlands

Context: The increase in density of large tree species, Vachellia robusta and V. tortilis, in the Serengeti Ecosystem of Tanzania has resulted in a decline of small tree species Senegalia senegal, V. hockii, Commiphora spp. This change has occurred since the late 1970s, a consequence of an increase in wildebeest following the extirpation of rinderpest, which reduced the dry grass fuel for fires, resulting in low fire frequencies. Change in tree species raises the question of whether there are indirect consequences for the avifauna that depend on the large trees for food and nesting. Aims: To determine how an increase in large mammals could influence diversity and distribution of avifauna communities in the Serengeti ecosystem woodlands. Methods: Data used to estimate changes in density of large and small trees were measured by Point Centre Quarter (PCQ). Bird species were recorded in 19 small-tree sites and 18 large-tree sites in the Serengeti National Park. Richness of bird guilds was calculated in the two habitat complexes (small and large trees), and the ‘rarefaction’ method was used to assess the difference in richness in habitats of the study area. Mean abundance for each species was calculated over the total number of sites for each habitat and compared using the Wilcoxon Rank Sum test to examine how the abundance of avifauna changes with each habitat type. Key results: There was an increase in the density of large trees in some areas in which they have replaced the original small trees. Such changes have resulted in greater richness of hole nesters and bark feeders, and a greater abundance of large-hole nesters and gleaner bird species. Conclusions: Because the increase in tree density was caused by an increase in large mammals, we conclude that this increasing mammal population is indirectly increasing richness and abundance of birds using the trees. Implications: Understanding the influence of large mammal populations on bird distributions has important conservation implications because the Serengeti ecosystem is classified as an important, endemic bird area

Catastrophic ape decline in western equatorial Africa

Additional co-authors: Yves Mihindou, Sosthène Ndong Obiang, Ernestine Ntsame Effa, Malcolm P. Starkey, Paul Telfer, Marc Thibault, Caroline E. G. Tutin, David S. Wilkie Output Type: Lette