Pest categorisation of Stagonosporopsis andigena.

The Panel on Plant Health performed a pest categorisation of Stagonosporopsis andigena, the causal agent of black blight of potato, for the EU. The pest is a well-defined fungal species and reliable methods exist for its detection and identification. S. andigena is present in Bolivia and Peru. The pest is not known to occur in the EU and is listed in Annex IAI of Directive 2000/29/EC as Phoma andina, meaning its introduction into the EU is prohibited. The major cultivated host is Solanum tuberosum (potato); other tuber-forming Solanum species and wild solanaceous plants are also affected. All hosts and pathways of entry of the pest into the EU are currently regulated. Host availability and climate matching suggest that S. andigena could establish in parts of the EU and further spread mainly by human-assisted means. The pest affects leaves, stems and petioles of potato plants causing lesions and premature leaf drop but not the underground parts, including tubers. The disease causes yield reductions up to 80%, depending on the susceptibility of potato cultivars. Early application of fungicide sprays and cultivation of resistant potato cultivars are the most effective measures for disease management. The pest introduction in the EU would potentially cause impacts to potato production. The main uncertainties concern the host range, the maximum period the pest survives on host debris in soil, the maximum distance over which conidia of the pest could be dispersed by wind-blown rain, and the magnitude of potential impacts to the EU. S. andigena meets all the criteria assessed by EFSA for consideration as potential Union quarantine pest. The criteria for considering S. andigena as a potential Union regulated non-quarantine pest are not met, since the pest is not known to occur in the EU

Pest categorisation of Aleurocanthus spp

The Panel on Plant Health performed a pest categorisation of Aleurocanthus spp., a well-de fi ned insect genus of the white fl y family Aleyrodidae (Arthropoda: Hemiptera). Dif fi culties within the taxonomy of the genus give doubt about the ability to accurately identify some members to species level. Nevertheless, the genus is thought to currently include about ninety species mainly reported from tropical and subtropical areas. The genus is listed in Council Directive 2000/29/EC and is regulated on Citrus, Fortunella and Poncirus . Several Aleurocanthu s species are highly polyphagous; Aleurocanthu s spiniferus has hosts in 38 plant families; Aleurocanthu s woglumi has more than 300 hosts including Pyrus , Rosa and Vitis vinifera as well as Citrus . A. spiniferus is present in the EU in restricted areas of Italy and Greece, where it is under of fi cial control. No other Aleurocanthus spp. are known to occur in the EU. Host plants for planting, excluding seeds, and cut fl owers or branches are the main pathways for entry. Outside of the EU, the genus can be found in regions that have climate types which also occur within the EU, suggesting establishment is possible. Aleurocanthus spp. can be signi fi cant pests of crops that are also grown in the EU. Phytosanitary measures are available to reduce the likelihood of entry into the EU, e.g. sourcing host plants for planting from pest free areas. As a genus Aleurocanthus does satisfy all the criteria that are within the remit of EFSA to assess and required by risk managers to give it consideration as a Union quarantine pest. Aleurocanthus does not meet all of the criteria to allow it consideration by risk managers as a Union regulated non-quarantine pest (RNQP). Speci fi cally, Aleurocanthus is not widespread in the EU

Pest categorisation of Acrobasis pirivorella

The European Commission requested EFSA to conduct a pest categorisation of Acrobasis pirivorella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), a monophagous moth whose larvae exclusively feed on developing buds, flowers, and fruits of cultivated and wild Pyrus spp. A. pirivorella is a species with reliable methods available for identification. A. pirivorella occurs in north-east Asia only, causing significant damage in cultivated pears. It is regulated in the EU by Council Directive 2000/29/EC where it is listed in Annex IIAI. Within this regulation, plants for planting of Pyrus spp. is a closed pathway. This species has never been reported by Europhyt. Fruits and cut branches of Pyrus spp. are open pathways. Biotic and abiotic conditions are conducive for establishment and spread of A. pirivorella in the EU. Were A. pirivorella to establish, impact on pear production is expected. Considering the criteria within the remit of EFSA to assess its regulatory plant health status, A. pirivorella meets the criteria for consideration as a potential Union quarantine pest (it is absent from the EU, potential pathways exist and its establishment would cause an economic impact). Given that A. pirivorella is not known to occur in the EU, it fails to meet some of the criteria required for regulated non-quarantine pest (RNQP) status

Pest categorisation of Thecaphora solani

The Panel on Plant Health performed a pest categorisation of the fungus Thecaphora solani, the causal agent of smut of potato, for the EU. The identity of the pest is well established and reliable methods exist for its detection and identification. T. solani is present in Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico, Panama, Peru and Venezuela. The pathogen is not known to occur in the EU and is listed in Annex IAI of Directive 2000/29/EC, meaning its introduction into the EU is prohibited. The major host is Solanum tuberosum (potato), but various other tuber-forming Solanum species are also affected. The pest has also been reported on Solanum lycopersicum (tomato), and wild solanaceous plants are also affected. All the major hosts and pathways of entry are currently regulated. Host availability and climate matching suggest that T. solani could establish in parts of the EU and further spread by human-assisted means. The disease induces gall formation on potato tubers, stolons and underground stem parts, reducing yield and making tubers unmarketable. The pest introduction in the EU would potentially cause impacts to potato production. In the infested areas, the only available strategy to control the disease and prevent it from spreading is the application of quarantine and sanitation measures and the cultivation of resistant varieties. The main uncertainties concern the host range, the biology and epidemiology of the pest, and the potential of the pest to enter the EU through three unregulated minor pathways. T. solani meets all the criteria assessed by EFSA for consideration as potential Union quarantine pest. The criteria for considering T. solani as a potential Union regulated non-quarantine pest are not met, since the pest is not known to occur in the EU

Pest categorisation of Popillia japonica.

The Panel on Plant Health performed a pest categorisation of Popillia japonica (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) for the EU. P. japonica is a distinguishable species listed in Annex IAII of Council Directive 2000/29/EC. It is native to Japan but established in the USA in the early 20th century. It spreads from New Jersey to most US states east of the Mississippi, some to the west and north into Canada. P. japonica feeds on over 700 plant species. Adults attack foliage and fruit surfaces. They can cause serious injury to tree fruits and soft fruit, vegetable crops, ornamental herbaceous plants, shrubs, vines and trees. Larvae are root feeders regarded as serious pests of lawns and turf, vegetables and nursery stock. Adults emerge during the summer and can fly short distances on warm sunny days. The life cycle is usually completed in one year. In cooler regions, development takes two years. P. japonica occurs in the EU in the Azores (Portugal), Lombardy and Piedmont (Italy) where it is under official control. Adults are suspected of being able to spread on aircraft as hitchhikers, i.e. without host plants. Soil accompanying plants for planting provides a pathway for further introductions. Hosts are widely available within the EU. Climatic conditions across central and parts of southern EU are suitable for development in one year. Across parts of northern Europe development over two years is likely. Without control, impacts could be expected on a range of plants. Phytosanitary measures are available to reduce the likelihood of introduction of P. japonica. All criteria assessed by EFSA for consideration as a potential Union quarantine pest are met. Plants for planting are not necessarily the main means of spread so P. japonica does not satisfy all criteria necessary for it to be regarded as a Union regulated non-quarantine pest (RNQP)

How Does the Main Infective Stage of <em>T. cruzi</em> Enter and Avoid Degradation in Host Cells? A Description of the Pathways and Organelles Involved on These Processes

Trypanosoma cruzi, the etiological agent of Chagas disease, is an intracellular parasite that targets specific proteins of the host cell resulting in the generation of a unique parasitophorous vacuole (PV). As an intracellular parasite, T. cruzi interacts with cells from the mammalian host. Here we review aspects related with the binding of the main infective developmental stage (trypomastigote) to the host cell and its recognition by surface-exposed ligands/receptors. This process involves numerous signaling pathways and culminates in the entry of the parasite and modifications in both cells. The invasion of trypomastigotes occurs through multiple endocytic process, assembly of the PV, interaction of this vacuole with the endolysosomal system, lysis of the PV membrane, and multiplication of amastigotes within the cell in direct contact with host cell organelles

Pest categorisation of Sternochetus mangiferae

The European Commission requested EFSA to conduct a pest categorisation of Sternochetus mangiferae (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), a monophagous pest weevil whose larvae exclusively feed on mango seeds, whereas adults feed on mango foliage. S. mangiferae is a species with reliable methods available for identification. It is regulated in the EU by Council Directive 2000/29/EC where it is listed in Annex IIB as a harmful organism whose introduction into EU Protected Zones (PZ) (Alentejo, Algarve and Madeira in Portugal, and Granada and Malaga in Spain) is banned. S. mangiferae is native to South East Asia and has spread to other mango-growing areas in Africa, South America and Oceania, causing significant damage. Larvae of S. mangiferae have been detected several times in mango fruit imported into the EU. In 2013, an outbreak was declared in one PZ in Spain. Official measures taken achieved eradication, which was officially declared in January 2018. The EFSA Plant Health Panel concludes that S. mangiferae could establish again and spread in the mango-growing areas of southern EU. Considering the criteria within the remit of EFSA to assess the status as a potential Union quarantine pest (QP), as a potential protected zone quarantine pest (PZQP) or as a potential regulated non-quarantine pest (RNQP), S. mangiferae meets with no uncertainties the criteria for consideration as a potential Union QP, as it is absent from the EU, potential pathways for entry exist, and its establishment would cause an economic impact. The criterion of the pest being present in the EU, which is a prerequisite for RNQP and PZ QP, is not met

Pest categorisation of Conotrachelus nenuphar

The EFSA Panel on Plant Health performed a pest categorisation of Conotrachelus nenuphar (Herbst) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), for the EU. C. nenuphar is a well-defined species, recognised as a serious pest of stone and pome fruit in the USA and Canada where it also feeds on a range of other hosts including soft fruit (e.g. Ribes, Fragaria) and wild plants (e.g. Crataegus). Adults, which are not good flyers, feed on tender twigs, flower buds and leaves. Females oviposit into host fruit; if oviposition occurs in young fruit, the fruit usually falls prematurely reducing yield; oviposition in older fruit causes surface blemishes and the fruit distorts as it develops reducing marketability. Larvae develop within host fruit but exit to pupate in soil. Adults overwinter in leaf litter. C. nenuphar is not known to occur in the EU and is listed in Annex IAI of Council Directive 2000/29/EC. Fruit infested shortly before harvest and soil with leaf litter accompanying plants for planting could potentially provide a pathway into the EU. Considering the climatic similarities between North America and Europe, and that hosts occur widely within the EU, C. nenuphar has potential to establish within the EU. There could be one or two generations per year, as in North America. Impacts could be expected, e.g. in Prunus spp. and apples. Phytosanitary measures are available to reduce the likelihood of introduction of C. nenuphar. All of the criteria assessed by EFSA for consideration as a potential Union quarantine pest are met. C. nenuphar does not meet the criteria of occurring in the EU nor plants for planting being the principal means of spread. Hence it does not satisfy all of the criteria that are within the remit of EFSA to assess for it to be regarded as a Union regulated non-quarantine pest (RNQP)

Pest categorisation of Cronartium harknessii, Cronartium kurilense and Cronartium sahoanum

Following a request from the European Commission, the EFSA Panel on Plant Health performed a pest categorisation of Cronartium harknessii, Cronartium kurilense and Cronartium sahoanum, which are well-defined and distinguishable tree fungal pathogens of the family Cronartiaceae. In 2018, these species were moved from the genus Endocronartium to the genus Cronartium. These pathogens are not known to be present in the EU and are regulated in Council Directive 2000/29/EC (Annex IAI) (as non-European Endocronartium spp.) as harmful organisms whose introduction into the EU is banned. These three fungi are autoecious rusts completing their life cycle on Pinus spp. C. harknessii is known as the western gall rust or pine-pine gall rust in North America (Canada, the USA and Mexico). C. kurilense and C. sahoanum are reported from Russia (North Kuril Islands) and Japan. The pathogens could enter the EU via host plants for planting and cut branches. The pathogens could establish in the EU, as climatic conditions are favourable and Pinus spp. are common. The pathogens would be able to spread following establishment by movement of host plants for planting and cut branches, as well as natural spread. Should these pathogens be introduced in the EU, impacts can be expected on pine forests, plantations, ornamental trees and nurseries. The pathogens cause formation of stem galls, which kill young trees and result in stem defect in older trees. The main knowledge gap concerns the limited available information on C. kurilense and C. sahoanum compared to C. harknessii. The criteria assessed by the Panel for consideration of C. harknessii, C. kurilense and C. sahoanum as potential quarantine pests are met, whilst, for regulated non-quarantine pests, the criterion on the pest presence in the EU is not met