Towards a macroinvertebrate sampling protocol for monitoring water quality of wetlands in South Africa.

Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2005.The degradation of wetlands and loss of their associated ecosystem services is widely recognised in South Africa, however, at present there is no standard method of biologically assessing wetland health in this country. Internationally, particularly in the U.S.A and Australia, wetland bioassessment techniques using macroinvertebrates are well established. A number of these wetland bioassessment protocols have been derived from local river biomonitoring techniques, as there is a belief that river and wetland ecology and macroinvertebrate assemblages at family level are similar. However, some authors consider wetland macroinvertebrate assemblages and ecological processes to differ greatly from those found in rivers, and believe that such techniques are not transferable. South Africa has a well established macroinvertebrate biomonitoring protocol for rivers called SASS5 (South African Scoring System Version 5). This study is a preliminary investigation into the extent to which the SASS5 scoring system is applicable to the assessment of nutrient enriched wetland water quality. Macroinvertebrates are particularly suitable as biomonitoring tools: they respond to a variety of stressors, have life cycles that allow for integrated responses to episodic pollution, and are relatively easy to identify to family level. When selecting wetlands for the development of a biomonitoring protocol, wetlands should all be of the same; classification (Le. palustrine), geomorphological and climate setting, hydrological regime and dominant vegetation class. Sampling was restricted to sedge-dominated palustrine wetlands in the midlands of KwaZulu-Natal, with similar hydro-geomorphological settings. Due to wetlands and rivers having different biotopes (e.g. no riffles present in wetlands), the SASS5 sampling protocol could not be used, thus a pilot investigation was undertaken to derive a suitable sampling technique for \ collecting a representative and diagnostic sample of aquatic macroinvertebrates from a wetland. This technique was developed based on published methods. Both sweep net and activity trap sampling were conducted, and each evaluated for their effectiveness at macroinvertebrate collection. Sweep net sampling was tested over a range of sweep intensities (2-6 sweeps), and activity traps were placed at four different depths: at the water surface, just below the surface, 0.10.15m below surface and on the substrate. A total of 32 taxa identified to family level were identified in the samples. Taxon diversity and composition did not differ in the activity traps placed at the four depth locations. Taxon diversity did not differ significantly between different sweep intensities; however there was a significant difference in taxon composition between the different sweep intensities and between activity trap and sweep net samples (p<0.05). Sixty-eight percent of taxa appeared more frequently in sweep net sampling compared to activity trap sampling. Six taxa were found exclusively in sweep net samples, and two taxa were recorded exclusively in activity traps. There was no trend in either method collecting more or missing any unique trophic group. In conclusion, activity traps are not required to supplement sweep net data, and a technique using a sweep net with a sweep intensity of five would be suitable to collect a representative sample of wetland macroinvertebrates. Using the derived technique, four reference and three wetlands impacted by dairy effluent were sampled. Six macroinvertebrate samples were collected from each of the seven wetland, together with data for selected physico-chemical variables, macrohabitat condition, biotope suitability and organism detectability. For each sample, the macroinvertebrates were identified and assigned a predetermined SASS5 tolerance score between 1 and 15, with higher scores indicating increased sensitivity to poor water quality. 11 A total of 39 taxa, identified to family level, were collected during sampling. SASS5 scores ranged from 15-82. Five of the wetlands had mean SASS5 scores of between 46 and 59. Five of the wetlands had an intra-wetland SASS5 score range greater than 30. ASPT values ranged from 3.3 to 5.5, and few high scoring (~8) taxa were collected. There was no significant difference in SASS5 scores between samples collected above, at and downstream of an effluent discharge point within the same impacted wetland. SASS5 scores for reference wetlands were also not significantly higher than those recorded for impacted wetlands. Comparison of ranked SASS5 scores and environmental data did suggest a relationship between the variables, but was not significant. Based on the SASS5 score water quality guidelines, all sampled wetlands were considered to have impacted water quality; however, this was not supported by the macrohabitat and physico-chemical results. Possible reasons for the low SASS5 scores include: the lack of 'stones in/out current' biotopes in wetlands, lower levels of dissolved oxygen present compared to rivers, and the limited detectability of organisms due to large amounts of substrate in the samples. A wetland adaptation of SASS5 would require the reassignment of modified scores to certain taxa based on their distribution in wetlands of varying water quality. The SASS5 score level of 100 and the ASPT value of 6 (as specified in the SASS5 score water quality guidelines) were found to be inappropriate for wetlands. It is suggested that, either the range of taxa tolerance scores be increased (1 to >15), or the score level of 100 be lowered. The ASPT value should also be reduced. Although SASS5 appears unsuitable for assessing wetlands, variations in taxon composition between sampled wetlands, identified through CA analysis, suggests that macroinvertebrates are responsive to changes in wetland condition, and thus have potential as indicators of wetland water quality. Nine taxa responsive to the presence of nitrogen have been identified as being potentially good indicators. iii Further research should focus on the testing of SASS5 throughout the year, in a range of wetland types, and in wetlands moderately to severely impacted by pollutants other than dairy effluent. It is recommended that a habitat or biotope index be developed and used in conjunction with any future wetland macroinvertebrate bioassessment protocols

Toward an analytical framework for understanding complex socialecological systems when conducting environmental impact assessments in South Africa

© 2015 by the author(s). Consideration of biophysical impacts has historically dominated environmental impact assessment (EIA) practice. Despite the emergence of social impact assessment, the consideration of socioeconomic impacts in EIA is variable, as is the extent of their integration in EIA findings. There is growing recognition for the need to move EIA practice toward sustainability assessment, characterized by comprehensiveness, i.e., scope of impacts, integration, i.e., of biophysical and socioeconomic impacts, and a greater strategic focus. This is particularly the case in developing regions and in countries like South Africa, which have statutory requirements for the full consideration of socioeconomic impacts in EIA. We suggest that EIA practice could benefit from incorporating evolving theory around social-ecological systems (SES) as an effective way of moving toward sustainability assessment. As far as we are aware, our study constitutes the first attempt to apply and formalize SES constructs to EIA practice within a regulated procedure. Our framework goes beyond conventional scoping approaches reliant on checklists and matrices by requiring the EIA practitioner to cocreate a conceptual model of the current and future social-ecological system with the implicated communities. This means social and biophysical impacts are assessed integratively, and that communities participate meaningfully in the EIA process, thereby helping address two of the most common shortfalls of EIA practice. The framework was applied in two case studies, establishment of communitybased accommodation linked to existing tourism infrastructure (Eastern Cape, South Africa), and a proposed wine estate (KwaZulu- Natal, South Africa). The framework revealed impacts, which would not be considered in a biophysically-oriented EIA, and helped identify development synergies and institutional and governance needs that are equally likely to have been overlooked. We suggest the framework has value as a counterpoint to established approaches and could contribute to improving the quality of EIAs with respect to the complex SESs that characterize the developing world

Utilising electrodermal activity sensor signals to quantify nociceptive response during movement activities

ObjectiveWith an increasingly ageing population and osteoarthritis prevalence, the quantification of nociceptive signals responsible for painful movements and individual responses could lead to better treatment and monitoring solutions. Changes in electrodermal activity (EDA) can be detected via changes in skin conductance (SC) and measured using finger electrodes on a wearable sensor, providing objective information for increased physiological stress response.ResultsTo provide EDA response preliminary data, this was recorded with healthy volunteers on an array of activities while receiving a noxious stimulus. This provides a defined scenario that can be utilised as protocol feasibility testing. Raw signal extraction, processing and statistical analysis was performed using mean SC values on all participant data. Extra exploratory analysis on a case study was incorporated using various decomposition tools. The application of the stimuli resulted in a 35% average increase in mean SC with considerable gender differences in SC and self-reported pain scores. Though EDA parameters are a promising tool for nociceptive response indicators, limitations including motion artifact sensitivities and lack of previous movement-based EDA published data result in restricted analysis understanding. Refined processing pipelines with signal decomposition tools will be necessary to incorporate into a protocol that quantifies nociceptive response clinically meaningfully

Utilising electrodermal activity sensor signals to quantify nociceptive response during movement activities

ObjectiveWith an increasingly ageing population and osteoarthritis prevalence, the quantification of nociceptive signals responsible for painful movements and individual responses could lead to better treatment and monitoring solutions. Changes in electrodermal activity (EDA) can be detected via changes in skin conductance (SC) and measured using finger electrodes on a wearable sensor, providing objective information for increased physiological stress response.ResultsTo provide EDA response preliminary data, this was recorded with healthy volunteers on an array of activities while receiving a noxious stimulus. This provides a defined scenario that can be utilised as protocol feasibility testing. Raw signal extraction, processing and statistical analysis was performed using mean SC values on all participant data. Extra exploratory analysis on a case study was incorporated using various decomposition tools. The application of the stimuli resulted in a 35% average increase in mean SC with considerable gender differences in SC and self-reported pain scores. Though EDA parameters are a promising tool for nociceptive response indicators, limitations including motion artifact sensitivities and lack of previous movement-based EDA published data result in restricted analysis understanding. Refined processing pipelines with signal decomposition tools will be necessary to incorporate into a protocol that quantifies nociceptive response clinically meaningfully

Utilising electrodermal activity sensor signals to quantify nociceptive response during movement activities

Objective: With an increasingly ageing population and osteoarthritis prevalence, the quantification of nociceptive signals responsible for painful movements and individual responses could lead to better treatment and monitoring solutions. Changes in electrodermal activity (EDA) can be detected via changes in skin conductance (SC) and measured using finger electrodes on a wearable sensor, providing objective information for increased physiological stress response. Results: To provide EDA response preliminary data, this was recorded with healthy volunteers on an array of activities while receiving a noxious stimulus. This provides a defined scenario that can be utilised as protocol feasibility testing. Raw signal extraction, processing and statistical analysis was performed using mean SC values on all participant data. The application of the stimuli resulted in a significant average increase (p<0.05) in mean SC in four out of five activities with significant gender differences (p<0.05) in SC and self-reported pain scores and large effect sizes. Though EDA parameters are a promising tool for nociceptive response indicators, limitations including motion artifact sensitivities and lack of previous movement-based EDA published data result in restricted analysis understanding. Refined processing pipelines with signal decomposition tools could be utilised in a protocol that quantifies nociceptive response clinically meaningfully

Utilising electrodermal activity sensor signals to quantify nociceptive response during movement activities

Objective: With an increasingly ageing population and osteoarthritis prevalence, the quantification of nociceptive signals responsible for painful movements and individual responses could lead to better treatment and monitoring solutions. Changes in electrodermal activity (EDA) can be detected via changes in skin conductance (SC) and measured using finger electrodes on a wearable sensor, providing objective information for increased physiological stress response. Results: To provide EDA response preliminary data, this was recorded with healthy volunteers on an array of activities while receiving a noxious stimulus. This provides a defined scenario that can be utilised as protocol feasibility testing. Raw signal extraction, processing and statistical analysis was performed using mean SC values on all participant data. The application of the stimuli resulted in a significant average increase (p < 0.05) in mean SC in four out of five activities with significant gender differences (p < 0.05) in SC and self-reported pain scores and large effect sizes. Though EDA parameters are a promising tool for nociceptive response indicators, limitations including motion artifact sensitivities and lack of previous movement-based EDA published data result in restricted analysis understanding. Refined processing pipelines with signal decomposition tools could be utilised in a protocol that quantifies nociceptive response clinically meaningfully

A systems approach to risk and resilience analysis in the woody-biomass sector: A case study of the failure of the South African wood pellet industry

© 2017 Elsevier Ltd Currently more than 600 million of the 800 million people in SSA are without electricity, and it is estimated that an additional 2500 GW of power is required by 2030. Although the woody-biomass market in the developed world is relatively mature, only four woody-biomass plants in SSA have been established, all of which were closed by 2013. With its affordable labour, favourable climate and well-established forestry and agricultural sectors, South Africa appears to have the potential for a successful woody-biomass industry. This paper documents a first attempt at analysing why these plants failed. It aims to contextualise the potential role of a sustainable woody-biomass sector in South Africa, through firstly developing a SES-based analytical framework and secondly, using this to undertake a retrospective resilience-based risk assessment of the four former woody-biomass pellet plants in order to identify strategies for increasing the resilience of the industry. The SES-based framework advances previous theory, which usually focuses on natural resources and their supply, by introducing a production process (with inputs and outputs), internal business dynamics and ecological variable interactions. The risk assessment can be used at a broad level to highlight important aspects which should be considered during feasibility assessments for new plants. Further work is proposed to focus on splitting the social-ecological system at different scales for further analysis, and to investigate the long-term ecological impacts of woody-biomass utilisation

Testing the applicability of the SASS5 scoring procedure for assessing wetland health: A case study in the KwaZulu-Natal midlands, South Africa

A study was undertaken between 29th January and 17th February 2004 to test the applicability of the South African Scoring System Version 5 (SASS5) scoring and calculation procedure in nutrient-enriched palustrine wetlands in the midlands of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Four reference wetlands and three dairy-effluent impacted wetlands were sampled. Six macroinvertebrate samples were collected with a SASS net from each wetland. For each sample, the macroinvertebrates were identified and assigned a predetermined SASS5 tolerance score. Data for selected physico-chemical variables, macrohabitat condition, biotope suitability and organism detectability were collected to assist in interpretation of results. Thirty-eight taxa, identified to family level, were collected during sampling. Total SASS5 scores ranged from 15 to 82. Five of the wetlands had mean SASS5 scores of between 46 and 59. Five of the wetlands had an intra-wetland SASS5 score range of greater than 30. Average score per taxa (ASPT) values ranged from 3.3 to 5.5, and few high scoring (≥ 8) taxa were collected. There was no significant difference in SASS5 scores between samples collected above, at, and downstream of, an effluent discharge point within the same impacted wetland. SASS5 scores for reference wetlands were also not significantly higher than those recorded for impacted wetlands. Comparison of ranked SASS5 scores and environmental data did suggest a relationship between the variables, but this was not significant. Based on the SASS5 score water quality guidelines, all sampled wetlands were considered to have impacted water quality. However, this was not supported by the macrohabitat and physico-chemical results. There are a number of possible reasons for the low SASS5 scores: the lack of biotopes present in wetlands compared to rivers (most notably the absence of the stones-in-current biotope), lower levels of dissolved oxygen present compared to rivers, limited habitat availability due to low rainfall during the sampling season, and the limited detectability of organisms due to large amounts of substrate in the samples. Without modification, SASS5 appears unsuitable for assessing wetlands. However, variation in taxon composition - within impacted wetlands and between reference and impacted wetlands, revealed through multivariate analysis - suggests that macroinvertebrates are responsive to changes in wetland condition, and thus show potential as indicators of wetland water quality. It is recommended that a habitat or biotope index be further developed and used in conjunction with any future wetland macroinvertebrate bioassessment protocols. Copyright © NISC Pty Ltd

Towards the development of a macroinvertebrate sampling technique for palustrine wetlands in South Africa: A pilot investigation in the KwaZulu-Natal midlands

A study was undertaken in November 2003 to derive a suitable sampling technique for collecting a representative sample of aquatic macroinvertebrates from a selected emergent vegetation biotope in a palustrine wetland, Melmoth Vlei, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. The aim was to undertake a preliminary investigation on the development and testing of a macroinvertebrate sampling technique for use in emergent sedge-dominated palustrine wetlands (sensu Cowardin et al. 1979), which could contribute to the development of a South African wetland health biomonitoring programme. Sweep nets and activity traps were evaluated for their effectiveness in terms of macroinvertebrate collection. Sweep net sampling was tested over a range of sweep intensities to determine the minimum number of sweeps required to collect a representative sample. Sampling efficiency of activity traps placed at four depths was tested, and taxon diversity and composition of sweep net and activity trap samples were compared to determine whether activity traps are required to supplement sweep net data. A total of 32 taxa (identified mainly to family level) were identified in the samples collected. Taxon diversity and composition did not differ in the activity traps placed at the four depth locations. Taxon diversity did not differ significantly between different sweep intensities. This may be a result of high variability of macroinvertebrate distribution within a wetland. There is evidence, however, to suggest that this result is due to an inadequate sample size. There was a significant difference in taxon composition between the different sweep intensities (P < 0.05) and between activity trap and sweep net samples (P < 0.05). Sixty-eight percent of taxa appeared more frequently in sweep net sampling than in activity trap sampling. Two taxa were found exclusively in activity traps, although the numbers of these taxa collected were not significant, and they do not represent any unique trophic group. Based on these findings, it was concluded that activity traps are not required to supplement sweep net data, and a technique using a sweep net with a sweep intensity of five would be suitable for collecting a representative sample of macroinvertebrates from a palustrine wetland. Copyright © NISC Pty Ltd

The identification of potential resilient estuary-based enterprises to encourage economic empowerment in South Africa: A toolkit approach

It has been argued that ecosystem services can be used as the foundation to provide economic opportunities to empower the disadvantaged. The Ecosystem Services Framework (ESF) approach for poverty alleviation, which balances resource conservation and human resource use, has received much attention in the literature. However, few projects have successfully achieved both conservation and economic objectives. This is partly due to there being a hiatus between theory and practice, due to the absence of tools that help make the transition between conceptual frameworks and theory, to practical integration of ecosystem services into decision making. To address this hiatus, an existing conceptual framework for analyzing the robustness of social-ecological systems was translated into a practical toolkit to help understand the complexity of social- ecological systems (SES). The toolkit can be used by a diversity of stakeholders as a decision making aid for assessing ecosystem services supply and demand and associated enterprise opportunities. The toolkit is participatory and combines both a generic "top-down" scientific approach with a case-specific "bottom-up" approach. It promotes a shared understanding of the utilization of ecosystem services, which is the foundation of identifying resilient enterprises. The toolkit comprises four steps: (i) ecosystem services supply and demand assessment; (ii) roles identification; (iii) enterprise opportunity identification; and (vi) enterprise risk assessment, and was tested at two estuary study sites. Implementation of the toolkit requires the populating of preprogrammed Excel worksheets through the holding of workshops that are attended by stakeholders associated with the ecosystems. It was concluded that for an enterprise to be resilient, it must be resilient at an external SES level,which the toolkit addresses, and at an internal business functioning level, e.g., social dynamics among personnel, skills, and literacy levels. Although the toolkit does not address the internal resilience level of an enterprise, it proved helpful at indicating which enterprises show potential resilience given current SES conditions. © 2012 by the author(s)