Crop damage by Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in Ekgaloya and Dewalahinda areas in Ampara District, Eastern province, Sri Lanka

Article Details: Received: 2020-04-21 | Accepted: 2020-09-04 | Available online: 2021-03-31https://doi.org/10.15414/afz.2021.24.01.47-54Sri Lanka is one of the Asian countries to support a considerable number of wild elephants mainly in the dry zone of the country. But today elephants have become one of the most seriously endangered large mammals in Sri Lanka and the world as well. Agricultural crop damage by elephants has become a most common and serious problem across the elephant range in Sri Lanka due to negative interaction of people and the elephants. Eastern province is one of such areas where severe crop damage by wild elephants could be observed. In these areas, most of the directly affected families are having low income level. For this common problem, still there is no proper mitigation plans to lower the impacts. Therefore, this study focused on the analysis of economic losses to cultivated crops, identify the most vulnerable crop species and suggest viable control measures to minimize this problem to a certain extent in the area. This study was carried out in two villages within one cropping season under two stages. Household survey including randomly selected 50 villagers from each village was conducted. Highest crop damage incidents were recorded in Dewalahinda area. Of the widely grown crop varieties, maize (Zea mays) and paddy (Oryza sativa) are subjected to heavy damage in both villages. Paddy and maize were reported as damage crop species by wild elephants in Ekgaloya and 19 households (out of 33) suffered due to that crop raiding incident. Out of 38 crop damage incidents in Dewalahinda, 28 households reported damages in maize and 26 household reported damages in paddy. Wild elephants have shown a least interest on some crop varieties such as chilli (Capsicum annum), ladies’ finger (Hibiscus esculentus) and peanut (Arachis hypogaea).  But these crop fields were heavily damaged by elephants as they walk across these fields. In both villages, the harvesting period seemed to be affected more by crop damages than other times. However, the post harvesting period was also affected occasionally especially in stored paddy.Keywords: endangered, socio-economic, cropping season, vulnerable crop species, Macroscopic analysisReferencesBandara, R. (2010). Willingness to pay for conservation of Asian Elephants in Sri Lanka. The Economics of Ecosystems & Biodiversity, 1–6. http://www.teebweb.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/Human-elephant-conflict-mitigationthrough-insurance-scheme-Sri-Lanka.pdfBandara, R. and Tisdell, C. (2003). Comparison of rural and urban attitudes to the conservation of Asian elephants in Sri Lanka: Empirical evidence. 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SPECIES COMPOSITION OF HABITAT OCCUPATION BY VERTEBRATE AND SOME INVERTEBRATE FAUNA IN THE VICTORIA· RANDENIGALA· RANTAMBE(VRR)SANCTUARY, SRI LANKA

A survey was carried out during April 1996 to March 1997 to assess the faunalcomposition and their habitat occupation in the VRR sanctuary (42,078 ha) as aprerequisite for the preparation of a management plan for the sanctuary. Fauna wasrecorded in relation to their major habitat types, by both direct and indirect observations.The terrestrial habitats were grouped according to the vegetation types and includednatural vegetation types such as dense forest (ll,200 ha) and riverine forests (500 ha).Man-influenced vegetation types consisted of open forests/savanna (6,330 ha), scrublands(7,590 ha), grasslands (1,725 ha) and home gardens (1,565 ha). The aquatic habitatsincluded flooded wetlands (paddy fields 1,070 ha, marshes/swamps/riparian zones 500 ha)and permanent water bodies (reservoirs - 5,580 ha, and 950 kilometers of stream and riversystems). The survey indicates that the VRR sanctuary harbours approximately 45% and19% of the total native and endemic vertebrate species of Sri Lanka, respectively. Thevertebrates included 30 species of fish (six endemics), 20 species of amphibians (eightendemics), 35 species of reptiles (eight endemics), 153 species of birds (12 endemics) and29 species of mammals (one endemic). The two invertebrate groups included 71 species ofbutterflies (3 endemic) and 41 species of molluscs (31 endemics). When considering thepercentage habitat occupation of the above taxa, the man-influenced habitats accounted for53% of the species (open forests/savannas - 20%, scrublands- 15%, home gardens 12% andgrasslands 6%), while the natural vegetation supported 31% of the species (dense forests -17%, and riverine forests-I 4%). The two groups of aquatic habitats harboured a similarproportion of species (flooded wetlands - 8% and permanent aquatic habitats 8%).

DISTRIBUTION OF AMPHIBIANS IN THE ISOLATED FOREST PATCHES AND OTHER HABITATSOF THE HANTANA RANGE, PERADENIYA

Sri Lanka is blessed with a diverse amphibian fauna, and the island harbors 54 recordedamphibian species.Five major habitat types namely Grasslands, Natural isolated forest patches, Riverinevegetaion, Pinus plantations, and abandoned tea land in the Hantana range was surveyedfor six months from June 2003 to November 2003. Day and night-time survey wascarried out to locate amphibian and to record their microhabitats. Line transect was usedin the field and hand nets were used to catch the amphibians. Species identification wasdone in the field used standard guides and photographs of amphibians were takenwhenever necessary.Seventeen amphibian species (3l:Yo of the total) including ten endemics were recordedfrom the five sites during the survey. Highest number of species (13) was recorded fromthe Riverine vegetaion. Natural isolated forest patches held the second highest number ofspecies (10). The number of species in the Riverine vegetation represents 24% of the totalnumber present in the country. Phi/autus fergusonianus, Rhacophorus macropus,Rhacophorous reticulatus, Rhacophorous cavirostris, and Microhyla ornate wererecorded for first time in the site.Hantana Range and the University land are subjected to severe degradation due to humanactivities. The natural forests have reduced to a greater extent due to the illegal felling,and the grasslands and Pinus plantations are subjected to annual fires. Many sites wereidentified with severe human interruption due to hiking and other re-creative activitiesand other domestic usages. Therefore, the most amphibian species found in the regionare heavily threatened.

EVALUATION OF WILDLIFE HABITATS IN THE VICTORIA· RANDENIGALA·RANTAMBE SANCTUARY USING LlFE·FORM AND HABITAT MODELS

A suitable hahilal evaluation method is an important 1001 for wildlife managers 10manipulate wildlife diversity, to predict how proposed hahital changes will effect differentwildlife communities. as well as 10 determine the quantity and quality of available habitatsfor a particular species. A simple method of habitat evaluation is the use or life-form andhabitat models (Anderson & Gutzwiller. 1994). During this process, all species of animalsfound in it given area arc placed in distinct life-form categories, based on theirpredominant habitat use paucrns for feeding and reproduction, Once the life-form table ismade. more detailed data on habiln! use is presented in hahitat tables for individual speciesunder each Iifc-Ionn category. By adding the number of habitats used by each species forreproduction and breeding, versatility score (V) can be obtained, Species with a highversatility score arc the least sensitive to habitat manipulation. This would also enablewildlife managers to examine the impact of habitat loss/modification and Ii~;t the speciesaffected. This method was applied to evaluate the native vertebrates and their habitats inthe VRR sanctuary, A total of 252 native vertebrates recorded were placed under 22distinct life-form categories. These species were further assessed according to their majorhabitat utilisation pancrns. Six major aquatic habitats and nine major terrestrial habitatswere identified, Based on the versatility score of each species, they were grouped into threesensitivity categories for hahitat manipulation: most sensitive. moderately sensitive andleast sensitive. The most widely used habitat of fauna were recogniscd, based on the lifeforms and habitat models. This simple method could he adopted to evaluate the faunalhabitats in all protected areas of Sri Lanka.

DISTRIBUTION OF SNAKES IN HANTANA RANGE AND PERADENIYA UNIVERSITY PARK

Sri Lanka is blessed with a diverse serpentine fauna, and the island harbours 93 snakespecies in 46 genera and 26 families.Seven major habitat types namely Grasslands, Natural forest patches, Streams and waterways, PinUS plantations, Riverine forests, Agricultural lands, and managed landscape inthe Hantana range and Peradeniya University Park were surveyed for six months fromNovember 2001 to April 2002. Day and night-time survey was carried out to locate snakesand to record their microhabitats. Species identification was done in the field andphotographs of snakes were taken whenever necessary .Twenty snake species (25'1'0 of the total: including six endemics were recorded from theseven sites during the survey. Highest number of species (l6) was recorded from thegrasslands. Agricultural lands, Riverine forests and Natural forest held the second highestnumber of species with nine and eight respectively. The number of species in the grasslandrepresents 30%. of the total number present in the country.Hantana Range and the University land are subjected to severe degradation due to humanactivities. The natural forests have. reduced to a greater extent due to the illegal felling, andthe grasslands and Pinus plantations arc subjected to annual fires. Therefore, the mostsnake species found in the grasslands are heavily threatened Study and planningprograms should be initiated to conserve the diverse habitats types in the area to protectand conserve the diverse snake fauna of the area.

Impacts of river regulation and other anthropogenic activities on floodplain vegetation: A case study from Sri Lanka

Since the initiation of large-scale development in late 1970s, the Mahaweli River basin in Sri Lanka has experienced significant changes. However, no comprehensive study has been undertaken so far to evaluate the impacts of river regulation on associated ecosystems including floodplains in the downstream. The present study was aimed at identifying the impacts due to both river regulation and other anthropogenic activities on inland floodplain habitats (locally known as villus) located along the final stretch of the River Mahaweli before reaching the Indian Ocean. Four villus, Handapana (HAN), Bendiya (BEN), Karapola (KAR) and Gengala (GEN), were selected for the study. HAN and BEN can be considered as highly influenced (HI) by river regulation while KAR and GEN as less influenced (LI) due to their respective locations. Due to the absence of pre- regulation vegetation data, HI villus were compared with LI villus in order to explore any potential impacts of river regulation. Vegetation was enumerated using belt transect method. To find out other on-going anthropogenic impacts on these villu ecosystems, a survey was conducted using 100 individuals living in two villages located nearby. The results revealed some significant modification in the composition and the diversity of the vegetation, most possibly due to river regulation and other on-going anthropogenic activities. However, the most notable changes were recorded in the herbaceous layer. Some native aquatic herbaceous species have been completely absent over the period of two decades since the developmental activities begun, while some exotic invasive aquatic species (Eichhornia crassipes) dominated the herbaceous layer in HI villus threatening the survival of the remaining native species. Density and richness of lianas too diminished significantly in HI villus perhaps due to changes of micro-habitat conditions as a result of river regulation and also due to over-harvesting for commercial purposes. The results suggest that these ecosystems have been altered over the years due to culmination of factors including altered flow regimes following river regulation and some on-going human influences. The present study highlights the importance of regulating such human influences on villus including fishing and extracting cane and reed in order to protect these vulnerable ecosystems for future generations. The potential of these ecosystems to develop ecotourism has also been emphasized

Bird communities and feeding guilds in Monaragala, an isolated hill in the eastern intermediate zone of Sri Lanka

The bird communities and foraging guilds were studied in the entire forest of Monaragala hill, by recording species and their abundances, in 33 plots (each 100x20 m), in four transects laid along its altitudinal gradient. Bird calls and sightings were noted for 30 minutes between 7.00-9.30 am, twice each month from 2004-2008.The communities were determined, by cluster and ordination analyses of data in all plots. For each community, relative abundance (RA) and frequency (RF) were calculated. Species were assigned to bird guilds based on their habitats, main food types and feeding strategies, from published informationWithin and outside the plots sampled, 112 bird species (23% of Sri Lanka‟s avifauna, including eight endemics) in 84 genera, 44 families and 13 orders, were recorded. Three communities were identified: i. a low/mid-elevation disturbed forest community (LDFC), inhabited by 40 species (including seven endemics). The Crimson-Fronted Barbet, Black Crested Bulbul and Tickell‟s Blue Flycatcher co-dominated it. ii. a ridge/upper-elevation undisturbed forest community (RUFC) of 45 species that included eight endemics, nine restricted species, the wet zone Sri Lanka Yellow Fronted Barbet and Sri Lanka Wood Pigeon. The Black Bulbul and Sri Lanka Yellow Fronted Barbet were its dominants. Thirty three species were common to both forest communities. iii. a grassland community, with only 10 non-endemic species, dominated by the Crested Tree Swift and Indian Swiftlet. Three grassland species were also seen in the forest communities.In each forest community ten bird guilds were present. The arboreal frugivore and gleaning insectivore guilds ranked highest in them, followed by the hawking/hovering insectivore guild in the LDFC, and the omnivore gleaning guild in the RUFC. The grassland community had only three guilds. Based on RA the sweeping insectivore guild and on RF the aerial carnivore and the sweeping insectivore guilds were co-dominant. The arboreal granivore guild was restricted to the grasslandThe study revealed that this intermediate zone, 43 km2 isolated hill (1,100 m amsl) harbors a rich avifauna, including some typical wet zone species, and rich populations of the rare Sri Lanka Spur fowl and the Sri Lanka Wood pigeon, justifying its high conservation value

Мониторинг воспроизводства и влияния фекального прогестерона на репродуктивную цикличность циклов самбарского оленя Шри-Ланки (Rusa unicolor unicolor)

Sambar deer hinds, estrus, progesterone, estrous cycle, Sri LankaThis study examines the length of the estrous cycle in 16 Sambar deer hinds in National zoological gardens in Dehiwala and Kegalle, Sri Lanka (NZGDK) assessed with the use of changes in progesterone concentrations, along with the changes in the profile of this hormone and by the visual estrus manifestations. The objectives of the present study were to characterize ovarian activity throughout the estrous cycle and the non-pregnant luteal phase of captive sambar deer in Sri Lanka. These objectives were achieved with the use of radioimmunoassay (RIA) to measure fecal concentrations of progesterone and visual estrus manifestation. Fecal samples were collected from non-pregnant sambar deer hinds (aged 2–4 years)over the period of six months on daily basis, both during breeding and non-breeding seasons. Estrous cycles were recorded in non-pregnant females, based on fecal progesterone concentrations. The average estrous cycle length was 26.1±2.08 days (mean ± SEM) and 2.10 ± 0.51 days in the inter-luteal phase.The average fecal progesterone concentrations attained the peak mid-luteal values of 2.74 ng mL–1. There appeared to be variation in fecal progesterone amplitude between animals and between dates, but the low frequency of sampling prohibited confirmation of trends. Behavioral estrus was detected only when the average progesterone concentrations were less than 0.07 ng mL–1. However, not all periods of depressed progesterone secretion were associated with the observed estrus. Behavioral estrus was detected in hinds when progesterone concentrations were less than 0.07 ng mL–1; a subsequent rise in progesterone indicated ovulation taking place at this time

A preliminary investigation of seed dispersal by elephants (<em>Elephas maximus maximus</em>) in Kumaragala Forest Reserve, Matale District, Sri Lanka

Elephants are capable of dispersing seeds in the wild and hence, have the potential to affect the vegetation dynamics of forests. Only few studies have been conducted in Sri Lanka to study the seed dispersal capability of wild elephants. Thus, this study was initiated to determine the diversity of plant species that are dispersed by the elephants in Kumaragala forest reserve, Central Sri Lanka. Dung piles were searched twice a month and three dung boli were collected randomly from each dung pile. Visible seeds were identified by comparing with a reference seed collection. A total of 84 dung piles were recorded from September 2014 to February 2015. Fifty three dung piles out of 84 (63.1%) contained seeds or seedlings of one or more plant species. Most of the dung piles were found in relatively undisturbed areas of the study site. Twenty two plant species; 15 cultivated (68.2%) and seven non-cultivated (31.8%) plants belonging to nine families were identified from dung boli.  Careya arborea, Megathyrsus maximus and Mimosa pudica were the most commonly noted seedlings. The findings of this study prove that elephants assist in dispersing seeds of some plant species in Kumaragala forest reserve area

Species composition, status and feeding ecology of avifauna in high altitude forests of Sri Lanka

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