Solidification Morphology Analysis of SLM of Cu Powder

The solidification morphology analysis of fine Cu powder melted by a raster scanned energy beam from a focused Nd:YAG laser is presented here. The powder was processed inside of sealed chamber where it was subjected to a high vacuum cycle. The laser fusion process consisted raster scanning a narrow rectangular pattern with a high density of scanning lines, the chamber was purged with inert gas during the process. Up to a 3.3 mm/s laser travel speed and maximum laser power level of 240 W were used to melt a 2 mm thick bed of loose powder. The resulting solidified ingots were separated into categories based on their shape integrity. Metallographic analysis by means of optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy was performed on the cross section and longitudinal section of the ingots with homogeneous surface and complete shape integrity. Characterization revealed an elongated columnar grain structure with a grain orientation along the direction of the laser travel direction, some degree of porosity was observed too in some of the specimens. It was observed that grains diameter ranged from 10 to 100 µm and contained a two phase eutectic microstructure of copper and it oxides. Oxygen content was accounted from a 5.5 up to 8.1 atomic percent, a small percentage of chlorine was present, too. A 2 to 8 percent variation in the Vickers microhardness values were found between the different specimens when measured along the longitudinal section. These HV values corresponded to approximate 20-25% cold rolled oxygen free copper (80-90 HV). The ingots thus produced suggest that a multilayer structure from Cu powder could be build by the SLM process having sufficiently adequate compositional, microstructure and mechanical properties for functional applications.Mechanical Engineerin

Direct Metal Laser Fabrication of Cu Slabs from Powder Precursor: Surface Depth of Melt and Furnace Temperature Issues

A DMLF processing unit based on a raster-scanned 80 W CO2 laser beam has been developed to process single layers of metallic powder precursor. The process chamber provides atmosphere control (high vacuum and inert gas refill) besides temperature elevation up to 700 o C. In this work, copper powder precursor is confined inside a refractory steel mask surrounded by an aluminum oxide jacket that acts as insulator. The powder layers can have thicknesses of 0,5 and 1 mm. An infrared pyrometer measures in real time the temperature at one location in the surface of the powder bed. Scan speed, scan step, and furnace temperature have been varied to find combinations of such parameters that render surface melting and maximum densification. Partially melted samples were produced and their mass density was measured. Micro-hardness and surface roughness were also measured along the resolidified surface, the first rendering an average of 80,6 HV compared to the 90-105 HV of oxygen free copper, while the second resulting in an 8 μm Ra value. Maximum melt of depth achieved is ~0,15 mm followed by a sintered layer.Mechanical Engineerin

Mechanical Behavior of SLS Components in Relation to the Build Orientation During the Sintering Process as Measured by ESPI

Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) allows producing real parts from CAD data from materials with different characteristics compared to the final model, presenting dissimilar mechanical properties between the prototype and the product. The purpose of this work is to correlate the mechanical behavior of beam-type specimens produced by SLS with build orientation angle used as a process parameter, also attempting to demonstrate how this parameter affects the accuracy of the Empirical Similitude Method (ESM). ESM presents itself as a valuable tool when creating scale models with SLS, specifically in the framework of evolutionary product design. More specifically, the Young modulus variation of test specimens of well-known dimensions and material (DuraformTM PA2 ), will be characterized by loading them within the elastic range. The resulting elastic deformations will be measured using the technique of Electronic Speckle Pattern Interferometry (ESPI) for small deformations in an out-of-plane configuration, contrasting these results with the elastic theory of deformations. As a main result, it was found that there exists a linear correlation between the build angle and the elastic modulus of the parts. Secondly, it was demonstrated empirically that the ESM predicts better the mechanical response of the part than TSM. Moreover, a 30% error reduction can be achieved within the ESM when using the build orientation angle as a process parameter.Mechanical Engineerin

Diseño y construcción de un equipo de soldadura por fricción con asistencia láser para la unión de ejes de acero AISI 1045 y aluminio 2017-T4

Welding metal alloys with dissimilar melting points make conventional welding processes unfeasible to be used. On the other hand, friction welding has proven to be a promising technology capable of joining materials, while preventing the temperature from exceeding the melting point. However, obtaining a welded joint with mechanical properties that are similar to the base materials remains a challenge. In the development of this work, a laser-assisted rotary friction welding equipment was designed and manufactured. A 3 HP conventional lathe was used to provide rotary movement, and a hydraulic pressure system that applies axial force through a simple effect cylinder was designed to generate friction to obtain the union between the base materials. In the implemented equipment, joints of AISI 1045 steel and 2017-T6 aluminum shafts were made. The welded joints were metallurgically evaluated, emphasizing on the chemical composition at the weld interface. For microstructure characterization, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersion spectroscopy (EDS), and glow discharge optical emission spectrometry (GDOES) were used to measure the initial composition of the welded materials. The results obtained show an adequate joint between the base materials, denoting the usefulness of the equipment manufactured for the union of dissimilar materials.La soldadura de materiales disímiles hace que los procesos de soldadura convencional no sean factibles de ser utilizados. La soldadura por fricción, por otro lado, ha demostrado ser una tecnología prometedora capaz de unir materiales sin que la temperatura supere su punto de fusión. Sin embargo, la obtención de las propiedades mecánicas de la junta soldada con características similares a los materiales base sigue siendo un desafío. En el desarrollo de este trabajo se diseñó y fabricó un equipo de soldadura por fricción rotatoria con asistencia láser. Para proporcionar el movimiento rotatorio se empleó un torno convencional de 3 HP de potencia y para generar fricción se diseñó un sistema hidráulico de presión el cual aplica fuerza axial mediante un cilindro de simple efecto para obtener la unión entre los materiales base. En el equipo implementado se realizaron uniones de ejes de acero AISI 1045 con aluminio 2017-T6; las uniones soldadas se evaluaron metalúrgicamente, haciendo hincapié en la composición química en la interfaz de la soldadura. Para la caracterización de la microestructura se empleó microscopía electrónica de barrido (SEM), espectroscopía de dispersión de energía (EDS) y espectrometría de emisión óptica de descarga luminiscente (GDOES) para medir la composición inicial de los materiales que se soldaron. Los resultados obtenidos muestran una adecuada unión entre los materiales base, denotando la utilidad del equipo fabricado para la unión de materiales disimiles

Diseño y construcción de un equipo de soldadura por fricción con asistencia láser para la unión de ejes de acero AISI 1045 y aluminio 2017-T4

La soldadura de materiales disímiles hace que los procesos de soldadura convencional no sean factibles de ser utilizados. La soldadura por fricción, por otro lado, ha demostrado ser una tecnología prometedora capaz de unir materiales sin que la temperatura supere su punto de fusión. Sin embargo, la obtención de las propiedades mecánicas de la junta soldada con características similares a los materiales base sigue siendo un desafío. En el desarrollo de este trabajo se diseñó y fabricó un equipo de soldadura por fricción rotatoria con asistencia láser. Para proporcionar el movimiento rotatorio se empleó un torno convencional de 3 HP de potencia y para generar fricción se diseñó un sistema hidráulico de presión el cual aplica fuerza axial mediante un cilindro de simple efecto para obtener la unión entre los materiales base. En el equipo implementado se realizaron uniones de ejes de acero AISI 1045 con aluminio 2017-T6; las uniones soldadas se evaluaron metalúrgicamente, haciendo hincapié en la composición química en la interfaz de la soldadura. Para la caracterización de la microestructura se empleó microscopía electrónica de barrido (SEM), espectroscopía de dispersión de energía (EDS) y espectrometría de emisión óptica de descarga luminiscente (GDOES) para medir la composición inicial de los materiales que se soldaron. Los resultados obtenidos muestran una adecuada unión entre los materiales base, denotando la utilidad del equipo fabricado para la unión de materiales disimiles.//Welding metal alloys with dissimilar melting points make conventional welding processes unfeasible to be used. On the other hand, friction welding has proven to be a promising technology capable of joining materials, while preventing the temperature from exceeding the melting point. However, obtaining a welded joint with mechanical properties that are similar to the base materials remains a challenge. In the development of this work, a laser-assisted rotary friction welding equipment was designed and manufactured. A 3 HP conventional lathe was used to provide rotary movement, and a hydraulic pressure system that applies axial force through a simple effect cylinder was designed to generate friction to obtain the union between the base materials. In the implemented equipment, joints of AISI 1045 steel and 2017-T6 aluminum shafts were made. The welded joints were metallurgically evaluated, emphasizing on the chemical composition at the weld interface. For microstructure characterization, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersion spectroscopy (EDS), and glow discharge optical emission spectrometry (GDOES) were used to measure the initial composition of the welded materials. The results obtained show an adequate joint between the base materials, denoting the usefulness of the equipment manufactured for the union of dissimilar materials

Surface modification of ceramic and metallic alloy substrates by laser raster-scanning

This work describes the feasibility of continuous wave laser-raster scanprocessing under controlled atmospheric conditions as employed in three distinct surface modification processes: (a) surface roughness reduction of indirect-Selective Laser Sintered 420 martensitic stainless steel–40 wt. % bronze infiltrated surfaces (b) Si-Cr-Hf-C coating consolidation over 3D carbon–carbon composites cylinders (c) dendritic solidification structures of Mar–M 247 confined powder precursor grown from polycrystalline Alloy 718 substrates. A heat transfer model was developed to illustrate that the aspect ratio of the laser scanned pattern and the density of scanning lines play a significant role in determining peak surface temperature, heating and cooling rates and melt resident times. Comprehensive characterization of the surface of the processed specimens was performed using scanning electron microscopy viii (SEM), energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), optical metallography, X-ray diffraction (XRD), and, in certain cases, tactile profilometry. In Process (a), it was observed that a 24 % to 37 % roughness Ra reduction could be accomplished from the as-received value of 2.50+/-0.10 microns for laser energy densities ranging from 350 to 500 J/cm2 . In Process (b), complete reactive wetting of carbon-carbon composite cylinders surface was achieved by laser melting a Si-Cr-Hf-C slurry. Coatings showed good thermal stability at 1000ºC in argon, and, when tested in air, a percent weight reduction rate of -6.5 wt.%/hr was achieved. A soda-glass overcoat applied over the coated specimens by conventional means revealed a percent weight reduction rate between -1.4 to -2.2 wt.%/hr. Finally, in Process (c), microstructure of the Mar-M 247 single layer deposits, 1 mm in height, grown on Alloy 718 polycrystalline sheets, resulted in a sound metallurgical bond, low porosity, and uniform thickness. Polycrystalline dendrites grew preferentially along the [001] direction from the substrate up to 400 microns. Above that height, dendrites appear to shift towards the [100] growth direction driven by the thermal gradient and solidification front velocity. This research demonstrated that surface modification by high-speed raster-scanning a high power laser beam under controlled atmospheric conditions is a feasible and versatile technique that can accomplish diverse purposes involving metallic as well as ceramic surfaces.This work describes the feasibility of continuous wave laser-raster scanprocessing under controlled atmospheric conditions as employed in three distinct surface modification processes: (a) surface roughness reduction of indirect-Selective Laser Sintered 420 martensitic stainless steel–40 wt. % bronze infiltrated surfaces (b) Si-Cr-Hf-C coating consolidation over 3D carbon–carbon composites cylinders (c) dendritic solidification structures of Mar–M 247 confined powder precursor grown from polycrystalline Alloy 718 substrates. A heat transfer model was developed to illustrate that the aspect ratio of the laser scanned pattern and the density of scanning lines play a significant role in determining peak surface temperature, heating and cooling rates and melt resident times. Comprehensive characterization of the surface of the processed specimens was performed using scanning electron microscopy viii (SEM), energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), optical metallography, X-ray diffraction (XRD), and, in certain cases, tactile profilometry. In Process (a), it was observed that a 24 % to 37 % roughness Ra reduction could be accomplished from the as-received value of 2.50+/-0.10 microns for laser energy densities ranging from 350 to 500 J/cm2 . In Process (b), complete reactive wetting of carbon-carbon composite cylinders surface was achieved by laser melting a Si-Cr-Hf-C slurry. Coatings showed good thermal stability at 1000ºC in argon, and, when tested in air, a percent weight reduction rate of -6.5 wt.%/hr was achieved. A soda-glass overcoat applied over the coated specimens by conventional means revealed a percent weight reduction rate between -1.4 to -2.2 wt.%/hr. Finally, in Process (c), microstructure of the Mar-M 247 single layer deposits, 1 mm in height, grown on Alloy 718 polycrystalline sheets, resulted in a sound metallurgical bond, low porosity, and uniform thickness. Polycrystalline dendrites grew preferentially along the [001] direction from the substrate up to 400 microns. Above that height, dendrites appear to shift towards the [100] growth direction driven by the thermal gradient and solidification front velocity. This research demonstrated that surface modification by high-speed raster-scanning a high power laser beam under controlled atmospheric conditions is a feasible and versatile technique that can accomplish diverse purposes involving metallic as well as ceramic surfaces.Materials Science and Engineerin

Surface roughness Ra prediction in Selective Laser Melting of 316L stainless steel by means of artificial intelligence inference

Selective Laser Melting (SLM) is a widely used metal additive manufacturing process due to the possibility of elaborating complicated and customized tridimensional parts or components. This paper presents research on predicting surface roughness of 316L stainless steel manufactured SLM parts using the well-known multilayer perceptron (MLP) and an adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS). Two models were adjusted to predict the top surface quality for different values of laser power, scanning speed, and hatch distance. The obtained results were evaluated and compared in order to ensure the goodness of fit of both techniques. The multilayer perceptron-based model has proved, to possess better predictive capability of the non-linear relationships of the SLM process. However, adequate results were also obtained with the adjusted ANFIS. The consistency of the presented models is also compared with previously published empirical formulations and discussed. As a final result, has been demonstrated that both fitted models outperform the previously published statistic-based approaches