Development of complex executive function over childhood: Longitudinal growth curve modeling of performance on the Groton Maze Learning Task

Supporting Information is available online at https://srcd.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cdev.13888#support-information-section .Copyright © 2023 The Authors. This longitudinal study modeled children's complex executive function (EF) development using the Groton Maze Learning Task (GMLT). Using a cohort-sequential design, 147 children (61 males, 5.5–11 years) were recruited from six multicultural primary schools in Melbourne and Perth, Australia. Race/ethnicity data were not available. Children were assessed on the GMLT at 6-month intervals over 2-years between 2010 and 2012. Growth curve models describe age-related change from 5.5 to 12.5 years old. Results showed a quadratic growth trajectory on each measure of error—that is, those that reflect visuospatial memory, executive control (or the ability to apply rules for action), and complex EF. The ability to apply rules for action, while a rate-limiting factor in complex EF, develops rapidly over early-to-mid childhood.Australian Research Council. Grant Number: DP1094535; Open access publishing facilitated by Australian Catholic University, as part of the Wiley - Australian Catholic University agreement via the Council of Australian University Librarians

Executive difficulties in Developmental Coordination Disorder: Methodological issues and future directions

Motor skills and cognition have often been studied separately, but there is increasing understanding of the close relationship between these abilities over development. Motor coordination difficulties are central to the diagnosis of Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD), and recent evidence suggests that certain cognitive processes, known as ‘executive functions’, may be affected in individuals with this neurodevelopmental disorder. In this article, we review the research concerning executive functions in DCD, considering behavioural, neuroimaging and questionnaire studies of a range of processes. We highlight methodological issues relating to our current understanding of executive functioning difficulties in DCD, including problems with interpretation of results based on the tasks used. We suggest future directions for research in this area, including the relationship of laboratory research to interventions within ‘real-world’ contexts

Reprint of "Deficits of hot executive function in developmental coordination disorder: Sensitivity to positive social cues"

© 2015 Elsevier B.V. Recent research shows that children with motor coordination problems (or developmental coordination disorder - DCD) show deficits in not only cool executive function (EF), but also hot EF. We aimed to determine whether this deficit of hot EF is due to heightened sensitivity to rewarding stimuli, specifically, or to a general deficit of cognitive control, like inhibition. Using two versions of a go/no-go task, one with neutral facial expressions and the other with happy and fearful faces, we compared 12 children with DCD with 28 typically-developing children, aged 7-12. years. Like earlier studies, children responded faster to happy faces. Both groups showed comparable accuracy in response to go targets, and also had similar commission errors, except when the no-go stimulus was a happy face. Importantly, the DCD group made significantly more commission errors to happy faces failing to suppress their response on more than half of the no-go trials. These results suggest a heightened sensitivity to emotionally significant distractors in DCD; this type of impulsivity may undermine self-regulation in DCD, with possible implications for adaptive function and emotional well-being. We argue that the interaction of cognitive control and emotion processing networks may be disrupted in DCD or delayed in development

Hot executive function in children with Developmental Coordination Disorder: Evidence for heightened sensitivity to immediate reward

Deficits of cool executive function (EF) have been shown in children with motor problems (or Developmental Coordination Disorder– DCD), but little is known of hot EF in this group. Given some evidence of poor self-regulation in DCD, we predicted poorer performance on a measure of hot EF, the Hungry Donkey Task (HDT), relative to typically developing (TD) children. Participants were 14children with DCD and 22 TD children aged between 6.5 and 12years. The DCD group performed significantly worse than the TD group on a 100-trial version of the HDT, making more selections from disadvantageous options and less from advantageous ones. Within-group analyses showed that children with DCD had faster responses to disadvantageous options than to advantageous. These results suggest high sensitivity to immediate reward in DCD. This sensitivity may reflect a more generalized deficit in the ability to resist the rewarding aspects of emotionally significant stimuli

Deficits of hot executive function in developmental coordination disorder: Sensitivity to positive social cues

Recent research shows that children with motor coordination problems (or developmental coordination disorder – DCD) show deficits in not only cool executive function (EF), but also hot EF. We aimed to determine whether this deficit of hot EF is due to heightened sensitivity to rewarding stimuli, specifically, or to a general deficit of cognitive control, like inhibition. Using two versions of a go/no-go task, one with neutral facial expressions and the other with happy and fearful faces, we compared 12 children with DCD with 28 typically-developing children, aged 7–12 years. Like earlier studies, children responded faster to happy faces. Both groups showed comparable accuracy in response to go targets, and also had similar commission errors, except when the no-go stimulus was a happy face. Importantly, the DCD group made significantly more commission errors to happy faces failing to suppress their response on more than half of the no-go trials. These results suggest a heightened sensitivity to emotionally significant distractors in DCD; this type of impulsivity may undermine self-regulation in DCD, with possible implications for adaptive function and emotional well-being. We argue that the interaction of cognitive control and emotion processing networks may be disrupted in DCD or delayed in development

Cognitive and motor function in developmental coordination disorder

Contains fulltext : 221414.pdf (Publisher’s version ) (Closed access)Aim: To analyse the development of motor skill and executive function in school-aged children with and without developmental coordination disorder (DCD). Method: Using a longitudinal design, 186 children (86 males, 100 females) aged 6 to 11 years at Time 1 were tested over a 2-year period, 52 of whom were diagnosed with DCD at Time 1 (27 males, 25 females; mean age 8y 5mo, SD 1y 6mo) using DSM-5 criteria. The McCarron Assessment of Neuromuscular Development assessed motor status at Time 1 and at 2-year follow-up (Time 2). Executive function was assessed using a well-validated measure, the Groton Maze Learning Test. Results: The DCD cohort at Time 1 had moderate incidence of executive function deficit (41%). Most importantly, at a group level, children with persisting DCD (across Times 1 and 2) also showed significantly lower levels of executive function than children with typical motor development at both time points. At an individual level, around 26% of children in this group had persisting executive function deficits relative to normal ranges of performance. Interpretation: Children with persisting DCD are at significant risk of executive function issues. The combination of motor and cognitive issues as a potential risk factor in the longer-term development of children is discussed.7 p

Cognitive and motor function in developmental coordination disorder

Contains fulltext : 221414.pdf (Publisher’s version ) (Closed access)Aim: To analyse the development of motor skill and executive function in school-aged children with and without developmental coordination disorder (DCD). Method: Using a longitudinal design, 186 children (86 males, 100 females) aged 6 to 11 years at Time 1 were tested over a 2-year period, 52 of whom were diagnosed with DCD at Time 1 (27 males, 25 females; mean age 8y 5mo, SD 1y 6mo) using DSM-5 criteria. The McCarron Assessment of Neuromuscular Development assessed motor status at Time 1 and at 2-year follow-up (Time 2). Executive function was assessed using a well-validated measure, the Groton Maze Learning Test. Results: The DCD cohort at Time 1 had moderate incidence of executive function deficit (41%). Most importantly, at a group level, children with persisting DCD (across Times 1 and 2) also showed significantly lower levels of executive function than children with typical motor development at both time points. At an individual level, around 26% of children in this group had persisting executive function deficits relative to normal ranges of performance. Interpretation: Children with persisting DCD are at significant risk of executive function issues. The combination of motor and cognitive issues as a potential risk factor in the longer-term development of children is discussed.7 p

Development of complex executive function over childhood: Longitudinal growth curve modeling of performance on the Groton Maze Learning Task

This longitudinal study modeled children's complex executive function (EF) development using the Groton Maze Learning Task (GMLT). Using a cohort-sequential design, 147 children (61 males, 5.5-11 years) were recruited from six multicultural primary schools in Melbourne and Perth, Australia. Race/ethnicity data were not available. Children were assessed on the GMLT at 6-month intervals over 2-years between 2010 and 2012. Growth curve models describe age-related change from 5.5 to 12.5 years old. Results showed a quadratic growth trajectory on each measure of error - that is, those that reflect visuospatial memory, executive control (or the ability to apply rules for action), and complex EF. The ability to apply rules for action, while a rate-limiting factor in complex EF, develops rapidly over early-to-mid childhood

Revealing hot executive function in children with motor coordination problems: What's the go?

Recent research suggests that children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) often show deficits in executive functioning (EF) and, more specifically, the ability to use inhibitory control in 'hot', emotionally rewarding contexts. This study optimized the assessment of sensitivity of children with DCD to emotionally significant stimuli by using easily discriminable emotional expressions in a go/no-go task. Thirty-six children (12 with DCD), aged 7-12years, completed an emotional go/no-go task in which neutral facial expressions were paired with either happy or sad ones. Each expression was used as both, a go and no-go target in different runs of the task. There were no group differences in omission errors; however, the DCD group made significantly more commission errors to happy no-go faces. The particular pattern of performance in DCD confirms earlier reports of (hot) EF deficits. Specifically, a problem of inhibitory control appears to underlie the atypical pattern of performance seen in DCD on both cold and hot EF tasks. Disrupted coupling between cognitive control and emotion processing networks, such as fronto-parietal and fronto-striatal networks, may contribute to reduced inhibitory control in DCD. The implications for a broader theoretical account of DCD are discussed, as are implications for intervention

Socioeconomic status and concussion reporting: The distinct and mediating roles of gist processing, knowledge, and attitudes

Improving health outcomes for concussed athletes and others requires self-reporting symptoms; not reporting risks second-impact syndrome and death. However, concussions in adolescents and young adults are often underreported. We treat reporting as a risky decision, extending predictions of fuzzy-trace theory (FTT). We hypothesize that low SES indirectly interferes with the development of cognitive skills that reduce unhealthy risky decision making. Specifically, we expect that SES may be related to intentions to report a concussion because low SES delays development of cognitive gist processing that reduces risk-taking. Adolescents in high-school and young adults in college (n = 1211) answered questions about concussion knowledge, concussion attitudes, and cognitive scales based on FTT: categorical thinking and endorsement of gist principles about risk. Overall, for each of the two age groups, and for athletes as well as nonathletes, SES was associated with reporting intentions, and this association was mediated by the three psychological predictors we tested: gist processing, concussion knowledge, and concussion attitudes. Results are consistent with lower SES reducing opportunities for normative cognitive development, the latter characterized by developmental increases in gist processing about risk. Hence, consistent with hypotheses, gist processing, concussion knowledge, and healthier attitudes about concussions were each associated with greater intentions to report concussions. Although educational initiatives currently focus on rote knowledge and healthy attitudes, future interventions to reduce concussion underreporting could benefit from explaining the gist of risk, especially to low SES youth, adapting successful FTT-based risk-reduction curricula from other domains