Patterns of change in psychological variables leading up to competition in superior versus inferior performers

The study explored patterns of change in a number of potentially performance-related 27 variables (i.e., fatigue, social support, self-efficacy, autonomous motivation, mental skills) 28 during the lead up to a competitive triathlon, and whether these patterns of change differed 29 for relatively superior versus inferior performers. Forty-two triathletes completed an 30 inventory measuring the study variables every other day during a two-week period leading up 31 to competition. Performance was assessed using participants’ race time, and using a self-32 referenced relative score compared to personal best times. Multilevel growth curve analyses 33 revealed significant differences in growth trajectories over the two week period in mental 34 skills use, social support, and fatigue. The results provide novel insight into how athletes’ 35 fluctuating psychological state in the two weeks prior to competition may be crucial in 36 determining performance

Building theory on the negotiation capability of the firm: evidence from Ryanair

Purpose: In an attempt to build upon existing theory, this paper investigates the potentially reciprocal relationship between negotiation and strategy, and strives to contribute towards a better understanding of the ways in which organizations negotiate. Design/methodology/approach: Built upon the integration of two different bodies of literature, negotiation and strategy, and on the analysis of the case of Ryanair, this paper argues for an integrated approach to negotiation and organizational capabilities. Findings: The case study allows for a clearer understanding of how negotiation capability can play a significant role in supporting the creation and sustainment of competitive advantage, even under unfavorable industry settings. Originality/value: The paper contributes to theoretical development by offering new and insightful explanations of firms’ behavior, moving beyond the classic interpretation of industry dynamics, such as bargaining power. This study has implications for both practice and research, as it offers a better and more holistic understanding of the strategy making process and the foundations of its success

Prior self-control exertion and perceptions of pain during a physically demanding task

Objectives: Exertion of self-control has been associated with impaired performance on subsequent physical tasks also requiring self-control, but it remains unknown why this occurs. This study, therefore, explored whether a) prior self-control exertion reduces subsequent persistence on a physically demanding task, and b) whether any observed performance decrements could be explained by changes in perceptions of pain. Method: In a within-subject design, sixty-three individuals completed an easy (congruent) Stroop task or a difficult (incongruent) Stroop task that required self-control. Participants were then required to remain in a physically demanding posture (i.e., a ‘wall-sit’) until voluntary exhaustion and their perception of pain was recorded during the task. Results: When participants completed the difficult Stroop task, they quit the wall-sit sooner. This decrement in performance was explained by greater perceptions of pain at the beginning of the wall-sit. Conclusions: Perceptions of pain may, therefore, be an important attentional mechanism explaining why self-control use interferes with subsequent persistence during physically effortful tasks

Manipulation of the duration of the initial self-control task within the sequential-task paradigm: effect on exercise performance

Self-control exertion on an initial task has been associated with impaired performance on subsequent physical tasks also requiring self-control; an effect suggested to be mediated by changes in perceptions of pain and motivation. However, the effects of spending longer on the initial self-control task are unknown. This study, therefore, explored the potential for the duration of the initial self-control task to influence subsequent physical performance, perceptions of pain, and perceived motivation; particularly during the early stages of the physical task. In a within-subject design, 29 participants (11 male, 18 female) completed a wall-sit task until volitional exhaustion, on four separate occasions. Prior to each wall-sit, participants completed either a non-self-control task (congruent Stroop task) for 4 min, or a self-control task (incongruent Stroop task) for 4 (short duration), 8 (medium duration), or 16 (long duration) min. Participant’s perceptions of pain and motivation were recorded every 30 s during the wall-sit. Wall-sit performance time was analyzed using one-way ANOVA and perceptions of pain and motivation analyzed using multi-level modeling. Wall-sit performance time was significantly longer on the non-self-control exertion trial compared to all other trials (all p < 0.01), as well as longer on both the short duration and medium duration self-control exertion trials compared to the long duration self-control exertion trial (both p < 0.001). Perceptions of initial (at 30 s) pain and motivation were different between the trials (main effect of trial: pain, p = 0.001; motivation, p < 0.001); whereby longer durations of self-control exertion increased perceptions of pain and decreased motivation. The decrease in motivation during the wall-sit task was greater on the long duration self-control exertion trial compared to all other trials (trial∗ time interactions, all p < 0.05). The present study provides novel evidence that spending longer on the initial self-control task led to greater detrimental effects on subsequent wall-sit performance time. Furthermore, longer duration self-control exertion tasks led to increased perceptions of pain and decreased motivation within the first 30 s of the wall-sit task, as well as a greater decrease in motivation across the wall-sit task. These attentional and motivational shifts may explain performance decrements following the exertion of self-control

Effects of exercise intensity on anticipation timing performance during a cycling task at moderate and vigorous intensities in children aged 7–11 years

This study examined coincidence anticipation timing performance at moderate and fast stimulus speeds before, during, and after a 15 minute cycling task. In a within-subject design, 24 children (18 males and 6 females) exercised on a cycle ergometer under two experimental conditions: exercise intensities of 50% (moderate) and 75% (vigorous) heart rate reserve. Coincidence anticipation timing was measured using the Bassin Anticipation Timer at stimulus speeds of 5 and 8 mph. A 2 (intensity) × 3 (time) repeated measures ANOVA was conducted to evaluate the effect of exercise intensity on coincidence anticipation performance before, during, and immediately after the cycling task. Results indicated that for absolute error there was no significant main effect for time (p = .633) or experimental condition (p = .782) at the 5 mph stimulus speed. However, there was a significant interaction effect between experimental condition and time (p = 0.026) at the 5 mph stimulus speed. At the 8 mph stimulus speed, there was no significant main effect for time (p = .910) or condition (p = .938), or interaction effect between experimental condition and time (p = .591). Cycling exercise at moderate intensity appears to influence anticipation timing performance during and immediately after exercise in children, but only when stimulus speeds are moderate in nature

Detrimental effects of prior self‐control exertion on subsequent sporting skill performance

The prior exertion of self-control has previously been shown to negatively affect physical performance, yet the effects on complex sporting skill performance have not been examined. Therefore, this study examined whether prior self-control exertion influences performance on a field hockey task, alongside measuring plasma cortisol concentration and attention as potential mechanisms to explain any effects. Following familiarization, 13 male hockey players (20 ± 1 years) participated in a randomized, order-balanced, crossover design. For the manipulation of self-control, participants completed an incongruent (self-control exertion trial) or a congruent (control trial) Stroop task. Skill performance was assessed using a field hockey skills task. Capillary blood samples, for the determination of plasma cortisol concentration, were taken at baseline, post-Stroop task, and post-field hockey skills task. Cognitive tests of attention (RVIP and Flanker tasks) were completed following the field hockey skills task. Participants made more errors in the latter stages of the field hockey skills task following self-control exertion (trial*time interaction, p = 0.041). Participants also made more errors on the RVIP task following self-control exertion (p = 0.035); yet the time taken to complete the hockey skills task, performance on the flanker task, and plasma cortisol concentrations were unaffected (all p > 0.05). Overall, these findings suggest that prior self-control exertion has detrimental effects on subsequent sporting skill performance (more errors made on the field hockey task), which may be explained by poorer sustained attention (lower accuracy on the RVIP task). This suggests that athletes should aim to avoid self-control exertion before a competitive match to optimize performance

The mechanisms underpinning the effects of self-control exertion on subsequent physical performance: a meta-analysis

Prior self-control exertion is consistently reported to cause decrements in subsequent physical performance. However, research into the explanatory mechanisms underpinning the effect is limited and has not been assessed under a meta-analytical lens. Therefore, the present study reports a meta-analysis examining the effects of self-control exertion on subsequent physical performance, as well as the mechanisms underpinning the effect. A systematic search of relevant databases was conducted to identify studies that utilized the sequential task paradigm, involving self-control manipulations lasting 30 minutes or less, and examined an aspect of physical performance. Random effects meta-analysis demonstrated that the prior exertion of self-control resulted in a statistically significant medium sized negative effect of prior self-control exertion on subsequent physical performance (g = −0.55). Further analysis revealed a small increase in initial perceptions of pain (g = 0.18) and a medium sized reduction in self-efficacy (g = −0.48), while motivation and RPE were unaffected following the exertion of self-control. The present study provides a novel insight into the mechanisms underpinning the effects of prior self-control exertion on subsequent physical performance. Initial perceptions of pain and self-efficacy appear important mechanisms and thus could be targeted in future interventions aimed at attenuating the effects of self-control exertion to enhance subsequent physical performance

Self-control exertion and goal priming: effects on time-to-exhaustion cycling performance

Interventions to attenuate the negative effects of prior self-control exertion on physical performance are limited. The current study had three primary objectives: a) to investigate whether prior self-control exertion reduces subsequent performance on a time-to-exhaustion (TTE) cycling task, b) to investigate if goal priming attenuated the detrimental effects of self-control depletion on subsequent physical performance, c) to examine the potential for any observed performance decrements to be explained by changes in perceptions of pain and motivation. Fourteen recreationally active males (23 ± 3 years) completed three TTE cycling tasks at 80% V̇O2 peak on an electromagnetically braked cycle ergometer. Prior to each TTE cycling task, participants completed a self-control depletion condition (incongruent Stroop task) or a non-self-control depletion condition (congruent Stroop task) for 4 min. During the TTE cycling task, participants were asked to watch a video on the screen in front of them. During this video, participants were exposed to a goal priming sequence (intervention condition) or a random letter sequence (control condition). The participants’ TTE cycling task performance time, subjective measures, and cycling cadence were recorded every 3 min during the TTE task. A one-way repeated-measures ANOVA revealed that there was no significant difference in TTE cycling task performance between the experimental conditions (p = 0.28). Furthermore, there were no significant changes in perceptions of pain (p = 0.36) or motivation (p = 0.21). The findings indicate that prior self-control exertion did not negatively affect subsequent TTE cycling task performance. In addition, goal priming does not influence the effects of initial self-control exertion on subsequent physical task performance