Development and cross-national validation of the Emotional Effort Scale (EEF)

Background: Researchers define Emotional Labour (EL) as the effort associated with meeting the emotional requirements of the job, yet nobody has ever directly tested this effort. Building on classic stress and ego depletion theory, this study develops the Emotional Effort Scale (EEF). Methods: In Study 1, exploratory (N = 197) and confirmatory factor analysis (N = 182) were conducted with a British sample. In Study 2, the instrument was adapted to Spanish and measurement invariance was tested (N = 304). In Study 3, (N = 185), we tested convergent and divergent validity with the EL strategies (i.e., surface acting and deep acting) and the relationship between EEF and emotional exhaustion. Results: The final scale is a two-dimensional measure (explicit and implicit emotional effort) with good reliability levels in all samples (N = 818). Additionally, it shows adequate convergent, divergent and nomological validity. Conclusions: The Emotional Effort construct adds unique value to the literature. Thus, explicit effort seems to be the mechanism that explains the association between EL and exhaustion. Additionally, this study adapts and translates the measure to two of the most used languages in the world, enabling the emergence of cross-national studies in the field of emotions at work

Beyond deep and surface acting: perceived emotional effort in customer service roles

Emotional Labour (EL) is a central feature of customer service roles, which refers to the effort employees exert in order to manage the emotions required by their role. Despite the emphasis placed upon “effort”, the instruments developed to measure EL have been focused on the strategies “deep acting” (i.e. changing your own feelings to achieve the required display) and “surface acting” (i.e. changing only the outward display). The lack of consistent findings, however, reveals the limited explanatory power of deep and surface acting as predictors of employees’ well being. Initial evidence from qualitative studies has started to emerge and suggests that the effort employees perceive to perform EL could be a better predictor of employees’ well being. Based on these findings and building on relevant stress theory, we present the development and initial validation of the perceived emotional effort construct

Online social support and the risk of Compulsive Internet Use: A cross-national exploratory study

Background: Although the health benefits of traditional social support have been largely documented (e.g. Uchino, 2006), less is known about its virtual form. Some of the benefits include increased social capital, potential for egalitarianism and the cathartic function of writing (e.g. White and Dorman, 2006). Notwithstanding, there is a risk of over-extending our virtual time at the expense of traditional interactions (Burrows et al., 2000). Moreover, spending long hours online is associated with higher risk of Compulsive Internet Use (CIU), a maladaptive use that results in damaged family relationships (Meerkerk et al, 2010). In this study, we explore the extent to which using online channels to interact with the main source of social support contributes to the development of CIU. Furthermore, to address the lack of reference to macro-variables in the study of social support and health, we collected data in three countries with different freedom in their internet access. Methods: We used a cross-sectional, survey-based design (NUK=277, NUSA=268, NUAE=270). The survey was made of validated scales (i.e. CIU, Meerkerk et al, 2010), Social Support (Rena et al, 1999) and new items that we developed to assess main source and main channel of social support. Findings: Those that mostly used online channels to interact with their main source of social support were at a higher risk of CIU. UK and UAE used online channels in higher proportion than face to face, whereas the USA used all channels (face to face and online) in a similar way. UAE reported higher levels of CIU than UK and USA, even though they also were the country that spent the lowest time online. Discussion: Our study highlights the dangers of relying on online channels for social support. The study also supports previous studies regarding the health benefits of using a variety of social support sources (Cohen et al,1997) and expands these to incorporate the channel of interaction (virtual vs non virtual)

Self-concept clarity and preference for online social interaction: implications for well-being and the role of employment status

With the advances in mobile technology and the social pressures to stay online, our social interactions are increasingly shifting from the physical to the virtual space. Within this unique context often characterised by low reliance on visual cues, whether or not we can expect the the well-documented health benefits of traditional FtF social interactions is far from clear. There is however some agreement in that traditional FtF interactions are needed to complement the positive effects of virtual encounters. In contrast, a preference for online communication seems to be associated with a risk to develop a maladaptive relationship with the internet characterised by loss of control and conflict referred to as “Compulsive Internet Use” (CIU). In line with recent studies which suggest that risk of CIU can be found in healthy individuals, we moved beyond psychopathological models of vulnerability to CIU and; building on the person-environment fit perspective, we identified the personality trait (i.e. self-concept clarity) that makes individuals more attracted to the unique features of virtual communication. Furthermore, we test our model of vulnerability of CIU taking into consideration unemployment status, a life-changing event which eliminates a source of social support (peers and supervisors) thereby potentially increasing the salience of virtual worlds. We tested our model in a sample of British individuals (N=523) with approximately equal number of employed and unemployed. We confirmed that a lack of self-concept clarity predisposed individuals to CIU and that this was partially explained by their marked preference for online virtual interactions. We also confirmed that the impact of this preference for online interactions was far more negative for unemployed individuals. Interesting venues for future research are discussed

Compulsive internet use: a study of prevalence and drivers in employed and unemployed individuals

Internet supports all areas of human interaction, however; the omnipresence of this phenomenon could have a double-edged sword impact in our lives. Thus, evidence suggests that some individuals can lose control over the use of the Internet, and end up with a pattern of internet use that is also characterized "by preoccupation, conflict, withdrawal symptoms, and use of the Internet as a coping strategy" (Meerkerk et al., 2010: 729). This has been coined Compulsive Internet Use (CIU). Because of the high reliance that we have on the internet in our work and personal lives, we are faced with the challenge of identifying risk factors that make individuals vulnerable to develop a pattern of problematic usage. In this study we build on David's cognitive-behavioral model to examine those drivers in a sample of employed and recently unemployed individuals. Since the ultimate aim of this paper is to explain how work and technology can affect well-being, this paper fits in the investing in the future of individuals strand

A study of personality and compulsive internet use in adults from the UK, the US and the UAE

Background and aims: Compulsive Internet Use (CIU) has been studied among adolescents, but less is known about the prevalence in adults and theoretical development of risk factors is scarce. The study of personality traits and CIU has revealed significant associations with neuroticism and introversion, although these relationships do not seem to be consistent across studies. According to Davis (2000), the social function of the Internet is key to identify the traits that increase vulnerability to CIU. Since Self-Concept Clarity (SCC) is associated with social phobia in face to face interactions, we expected that individuals with low SCC would show a marked preference for virtual social interactions and in turn, higher CIU. Because SCC is related to well-being in Individualistic samples, we expected that the association between SCC and CIU would be weaker in our Collectivistic sample, particularly when respondents reported high levels of offline social support. Methods: We used survey-based design with samples from UK (N=277), US (N=268) and UAE (N=285). We tested the model with Multi-group Confirmatory Factor Analysis with AMOS 20. Results: The relationship between SCC and CIU was partially mediated by preference for virtual interactions in UK and US. In the UAE, the relationship between SCC and CIU was weak and not significant, at low and high levels of social support respectively. We also found that UAE reported higher levels of CIU than UK and USA, even though they spent the lowest time online. Conclusion: Our results provide new insights on the association between personality and CIU through the preference for virtual interactions. Importantly, the impact of SCC on CIU is not as relevant in countries with more collectivistic cultures

Emotional labour and burnout in the leisure industry: a comparison between Spain and the UK from a conservation of resources perspective

EThOS - Electronic Theses Online ServiceGBUnited Kingdo

The positive outcomes of deep acting: a comparison between impulsive and institutionally oriented cultures.

Deep Acting (DA) refers to the strategy whereby employees make an effort to feel the emotions required by the role. The present study examines the emotion regulation tendency (reappraisal) as antecedent of the strategy; and the intervening mechanisms explaining the impact of DA on relevant job attitudes (i.e. job commitment, professional efficacy and turnover intentions). The process was studied in two countries with different tendencies towards the free expression of emotions: Spain and UK. Results indicated that DA and turnover intentions were higher in the UK. Regarding the process, reappraisal predicted DA in both countries. Further, the relationship between DA and the relevant outcomes was explained by the experience of self-actualization through the interaction and increased job commitment. In short, this study offers a more positive view of the consequences of emotional labour. Thus, DA results in a resource development process that promotes positive job attitudes such as job commitment