Cognition in contests: mechanisms, ecology, and evolution

Animal contests govern access to key resources and are a fundamental determinant of fitness within populations. Little is known about the mechanisms generating individual variation in strategic contest behavior or what this variation means for population level processes. Cognition governs the expression of behaviors during contests, most notably by linking experience gained with decision making, but its role in driving the evolutionary ecological dynamics of contests is only beginning to emerge. We review the kinds of cognitive mechanisms that underlie contest behavior, emphasize the importance of feedback loops and socio-ecological context, and suggest that contest behavior provides an ideal focus for integrative studies of phenotypic variation

Rural water districts in Illinois

Research was conducted on the legal-organization, the economic and the spatial aspects of rural water systems. With encouragement from subsidized federal government credit, rural water systems serving farmers, nonfarm residents in the open country and residents of towns under 10,000 people have been developed to meet the demands for a dependable quality domestic water supply. The 59 districts financed in part by the Farmers Home Administration, USDA, and serving only farmers and nonfarm rural residence customers in Illinois were the objects of the research. In general, these systems serve 24,000 customers and maintain 4,200 miles of line. They are located in the southern, the west-central, and the east-central regions of Illinois. The systems received financial assistance from the federal government in the form of construction grants and/or low interest loans authorized initially in 1954. The systems are generally owned and operated by "water supply districts," a special unit of local government and have to comply with all operating procedures and regulations required of public water supplies under Illinois Environmental Protection Agency authority. In analyzing the costs of rural water service, districts with greater volume and/or higher user density generally had lower operating costs. The median number of users reported was 278. In 1980 dollars, the per user average outlay for operating costs and debt retirement was approximately $16.00 per month. Only 22 percent of rural water district users were farmers. Consumption levels averaged 4.64 thousand gallons per month at an average price of$5.77. The demand for rural water service was inelastic over much of the relevant range of observations. Little evidence was discovered supporting the contention that rural water service is a major force in the shift of agricultural land to nonfarm residential use.U.S. Department of the InteriorU.S. Geological SurveyOpe

Exposure to Household Air Pollution from Biomass Cookstoves and Levels of Fractional Exhaled Nitric Oxide (FeNO) among Honduran Women

Household air pollution is estimated to be responsible for nearly three million premature deaths annually. Measuring fractional exhaled nitric oxide (FeNO) may improve the limited understanding of the association of household air pollution and airway inflammation. We evaluated the cross-sectional association of FeNO with exposure to household air pollution (24-h average kitchen and personal fine particulate matter and black carbon; stove type) among 139 women in rural Honduras using traditional stoves or cleaner-burning Justastoves. We additionally evaluated interaction by age. Results were generally consistent with a null association; we did not observe a consistent pattern for interaction by age. Evidence from ambient and household air pollution regarding FeNO is inconsistent, and may be attributable to differing study populations, exposures, and FeNO measurement procedures (e.g., the flow rate used to measure FeNO)