Unbundling tenure issues for urban sanitation development

Urbanisation in sub-Saharan Africa is characterised by a proliferation of informal settlements which all too often embody poverty; low access to basic services and lack secure tenure. The reality of sanitation infrastructure in low and middle income cities is a spectrum of sanitation systems ranging from conventional utility managed systems to basic household facilities. Population growth has outpaced urban planning and provision and, given projected urbanisation trends, a prevalence of non-piped self-build sanitation systems is the most likely scenario for urban sanitation in the developing world, at least for the immediate to mid-term. This presents different governance challenges especially as informal occupations are often on unsuitable land which exacerbates the difficulties in service provision. Sanitation, tenure and development are inextricably linked, not only with respect to these challenges of urbanisation, but also under the strategic objectives of the Millennium Development Goals (MDG). Together sanitation and tenure security are primary indicators of the MDG7, targets ten (access to improved sanitation) and eleven (improving the lives of slum dwellers). The link between sanitation and tenure is the focus of this research. Both tenure and sanitation are fragmented into their component parts to understand exactly how and where they interact. Tenure is defined in terms of formal land tenure; tenure status (to differentiate between landlord and tenant) and tenure security. Sanitation issues are investigated with respect to access, household investment and emptying behaviours. The research framework combines the concept of decision making domains to describe the urban context with a city-wide systems view of sanitation, where both formal and informal institutional arrangements are considered. This research concludes on five main points: firstly, tenure security is a necessary precondition for household investment but, given that urban sanitation development and provision happen largely under the radar of formal city planning and urban management, it is de facto rather than de jure tenure rights that provide the security for household investment in sanitation. The second finding is that few urban sanitation strategies cater for those who are unwilling or unable to invest. This is a fundamental oversight in current urban sanitation strategies of the population segments who cannot invest, thus failing to provide a sanitation strategy for all. This is of growing concern given the type of urbanisation being witnessed in developing countries characterised by increasing concentrations low income populations and tenants. The third finding is that those who are unwilling to invest may be willing to pay (and do) for sanitation services. This places a greater emphasis on downstream and operational sanitation activities (i.e. tenure neutral options). The fourth finding is that there are multiple service providers and majority of urban sanitation transactions take place outside the formal service provision. Giving meaning to these informal transactions is likely to offer insight into improved governance for urban sanitation. The final point is that there is a need to widen the scope of formal sanitation service provision to include tenure neutral sanitation options to reach the needs of tenants and those living with poor tenure security. xiii Practically, this means that by taking a city-wide approach supported by the sanitation cityscape tool which is presented in the thesis one can identify which element(s) of the sanitation system are most appropriate to target given the tenure situation. Without this consideration, urban sanitation interventions are likely to be targeted inappropriately. These conclusions are based upon primary data collected from a household survey (n=363) and a series of key informant interviews collected during 2008 in Greater Dakar, Senegal

An investigation into linkages between tenure and urban sanitation development

Demand-responsive sanitation acknowledges the need for sanitation development to be household-centred rather than technology focused. However, these strategies (such as social marketing) have a fundamental assumption that the end user has a universal freedom of choice. In view of the proliferation of informal and rental accommodation in low-income settlements of developing countries, this assumption may obscure reality. In this context, inter and intra-household members may enjoy a range of freedoms and access to sanitation resources. In considering the diversity of the urban poor, this ongoing study seeks to examine how the critical differences in tenure status and associated property rights relate to an individual’s access to improved sanitation infrastructure

Personally addressed hand-signed letters increase questionnaire response: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials

BACKGROUND: Postal questionnaires are commonly used to collect data for health studies, but non-response reduces study sample sizes and can introduce bias. Finding ways to increase the proportion of questionnaires returned would improve research quality. We sought to quantify the effect on response when researchers address participants personally by name on letters that accompany questionnaires. METHODS: All randomised controlled trials in a published systematic review that evaluated the effect on response of including participants' names on letters that accompany questionnaires were included. Odds ratios for response were pooled in a random effects meta-analysis and evidence for changes in effects over time was assessed using random effects meta-regression. RESULTS: Fourteen randomised controlled trials were included covering a wide range of topics. Most topics were unrelated to health or social care. The odds of response when including participants' names on letters were increased by one-fifth (pooled OR 1.18, 95% CI 1.03 to 1.34; p = 0.015). When participants' names and hand-written signatures were used in combination, the effect was a more substantial increase in response (OR 1.45, 95% CI 1.27 to 1.66; p < 0.001), corresponding to an absolute increase in the proportion of questionnaires returned of between 4% and 10%, depending on the baseline response rate. There was no evidence that the magnitude of these effects had declined over time. CONCLUSION: This meta-analysis of the best available evidence indicates that researchers using postal questionnaires can increase response by addressing participants by name on cover letters. The effect appears to be enhanced by including hand-written signatures

Barriers and Opportunities for Sanitation SMEs: A Study of the Wider Market System in Ghana

This Topic Brief presents a study of the wider market barriers and opportunities facing small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in sanitation in Ghana.Conducted by i-San, the study aimed to understand the impact of these factors on the ability of businesses to reach low-income urban communities with appropriate products and services.Major barriers to entry for sanitation start-ups in Ghana are the lack of start-up capital; lack of access to affordable banking services (particularly the cost of borrowing); inadequate public infrastructure; and the high cost of creating partnerships with the public sector.Ghana's challenging micro-economic climate is the primary barrier impacting the viability of sanitation SMEs. This includes high interest rates; limited access to operational finance; currency depreciation; and high cost of utility.The study identified several opportunities to support sanitation SMEs in Ghana, including innovative finance; training and business development support; reinforcement of representative associations; and reinforcing the policy and regulatory environment

Potential distribution of Rapistrum rugosum (turnip weed)

Rapistrum rugosum (L.) All. (Brassicaceae) is a widely distributed weed of annual crops, especially pulses, in southern Australia. With the south-west of Western Australia predicted to become drier and hotter due to climate change, the development of predictive models to determine future weed threats to the agricultural industry is essential for early intervention and to enable adaptation measures to be put in place. We measured the plant’s growth in relation to temperature and used this information along with soil moisture and phenology information based on the known distribution to derive growth parameters to develop a CLIMEX model. Under a warming climateR. rugosum is projected to increase its distribution in the northern hemisphere, but to decrease its distribution in Australia

Methods to select areas to survey for biological control agents: An example based on growth in relation to temperature and distribution of the weed Conyza bonariensis

A novel approach for selecting areas to survey for biological control agents, incorporating climate and a hypothesised biological control agent, is demonstrated using the target weed Conyza bonariensis (Asteraceae). This weed has become important in Australian cropping regions due to its persistence and herbicide resistance, and it is also increasingly an environmental weed. Both are reasons for the investigation of biological control options. We developed a species niche model for C. bonariensis in CLIMEX based on parameters informed by plant growth and distribution of the species in the Americas. A hypothetical biological control agent (HBCA-cold) was proposed that has its ideal growth range 5 °C below that of the weed, so as to favour development of the agent over that of the weed in parts of Australia. The southern part of the weed's native distribution in Argentina, Chile and the highlands of Ecuador and Columbia were identified as the most suitable areas for surveys that take into account both the climate suitable for the HBCA-cold and the target regions in Australia. This was compared to a model (HBCA-hot) that had an ideal growth range 5 °C above that of the weed, but which identified potential areas for surveys in South America that were not climatically aligned with the main regions of the weed's economic impact in Australia. This species distribution modelling method allows for prioritisation of search areas for biological control agents in the case of widespread target species such as C. bonariensis. © 2016 Published by Elsevier Inc

Urban sanitation: where to next?

This paper sets the current research-related innovations in urban sanitation of low to middle income countries within a broader historic context. It highlights the key threads of urban sanitation discourse over the past four decades; from putting the last first, to a more nuanced understanding of household demand and uptake, and a focus on faecal sludge management (FSM). Particularly since 2008 the International Year of Sanitation, there has been increasing specialisation around the sanitation value chain and FSM, producing deeper knowledge and several diagnostic / decision support tools. Whist the sector has, in no doubt, made great progress, the paper suggests that there is a risk of (over)simplification. Now is the time, armed with a better understanding and decision support tools, to embrace urban complexity; to place sanitation back into the wider human-technology-environment systems of the city; and to plan for integrated basic services in the domestic and peri-domestic domains

Measles Vaccination in HIV-Infected Children: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Safety and Immunogenicity

Background. Measles control may be more challenging in regions with a high prevalence of HIV infection. HIV-infected children are likely to derive particular benefit from measles vaccines because of an increased risk of severe illness. However, HIV infection can impair vaccine effectiveness and may increase the risk of serious adverse events after receipt of live vaccines. We conducted a systematic review to assess the safety and immunogenicity of measles vaccine in HIV-infected children. Methods. The authors searched 8 databases through 12 February 2009 and reference lists. Study selection and data extraction were conducted in duplicate. Meta-analysis was conducted when appropriate. Results. Thirty-nine studies published from 1987 through 2008 were included. In 19 studies with information about measles vaccine safety, more than half reported no serious adverse events. Among HIV-infected children, 59% (95% confidence intervals [CI], 46-71%) were seropositive after receiving standard-titer measles vaccine at 6 months (1 study), comparable to the proportion of seropositive HIV-infected children vaccinated at 9 (8 studies) and 12 months (10 studies). Among HIV-exposed but uninfected and HIV-unexposed children, the proportion of seropositive children increased with increasing age at vaccination. Fewer HIV-infected children were protected after vaccination at 12 months than HIV-exposed but uninfected children (relative risk, 0.61; 95% CI, .50-.73). Conclusions. Measles vaccines appear to be safe in HIV-infected children, but the evidence is limited. When the burden of measles is high, measles vaccination at 6 months of age is likely to benefit children of HIV-infected women, regardless of the child's HIV infection statu

Tenure security and household investment decisions for urban sanitation: the case of Dakar, Senegal

This paper explores the relevance of householders' security of tenure to their willingness to pay the capital and operational costs for sanitation in low-income urban areas. When the sanitation norm is self-managed on-site systems, as is the case in many low-income areas of towns and cities, household investment decisions in sanitation are inherently linked to tenure security. Based on evidence gathered in Dakar, Senegal, it is de facto rather than de jure tenure rights that provide sufficient security for household investment in sanitation. We make a critical distinction between willingness to invest and willingness to pay for the capital investment costs and on-going operational servicing costs of sanitation. Whilst tenants and those with lower tenure security do not invest in capital infrastructure, they are willing to pay for the operational aspects of sanitation services. Current formal policy settings and strategies for urban sanitation tend not to cater for this group; this is a fundamental oversight as these constitute significant and growing segments of the population. Land tenure and sanitation issues need to be considered in an integrated way and the capital and operational costs need to be disaggregated in planning to respond more effectively to the spending decisions of the urban poor