14 research outputs found
Risk Factors for Foot-and-Mouth Disease in Tanzania, 2001-2006
We developed a model to quantify the effect of factors
influencing the spatio-temporal distribution of foot-and-mouth
disease (FMD) in Tanzania. The land area of Tanzania was divided
into a regular grid of 20 km x 20 km cells and separate grids
constructed for each of the 12-month periods between 2001 and
2006. For each year, a cell was classified as either FMD
positive or negative dependent on an outbreak being recorded in
any settlement within the cell boundaries. A Bayesian
mixed-effects spatial model was developed to assess the
association between the risk of FMD occurrence and distance to
main roads, railway lines, wildlife parks, international borders
and cattle density. Increases in the distance to main roads
decreased the risk of FMD every year from 2001 to 2006 (ORs
ranged from 0.43 to 0.97). Increases in the distance to railway
lines and international borders were, in general, associated
with a decreased risk of FMD (ORs ranged from 0.85 to 0.99).
Increases in the distance from a national park decreased the
risk of FMD in 2001 (OR 0.80; 95% CI 0.68-0.93) but had the
opposite effect in 2004 (OR 1.06; 95% CI 1.01-1.12). Cattle
population density was, in general, positively associated with
the risk of FMD (ORs ranged from 1.01 to 1.30). The spatial
distribution of high-risk areas was variable and corresponded to
endemic (2001, 2002 and 2005) and epidemic (2003, 2004 and 2006)
phases. Roads played a dominant role in both epidemiological
situations; we hypothesize that roads are the main driver of FMD
expansion in Tanzania. Our results suggest that FMD occurrence
in Tanzania is more related to animal movement and human
activity via communication networks than transboundary movements
or contact with wildlife
A randomized, blinded, controlled trial to assess sand fly mortality of fluralaner administered orally in dogs
Background: Leishmania infantum is the parasite responsible for the disease in humans known as zoonotic visceral
leishmaniasis (ZVL). Dogs are considered the main domestic reservoir of ZVL and sand flies are the proven vectors.
The use of systemic insecticides in dogs has been studied as an alternative strategy to control ZVL in endemic areas.
One systemic insecticide in dogs, fluralaner, has a proven anti-sand fly effect in membrane-fed studies. However, the
efficacy and duration on sand flies directly feeding from dogs treated with fluralaner remains unknown.
Methods: Direct feeding bioassays were performed on 10 beagle dogs that had been randomly assigned to two
groups: one with five dogs orally treated with Bravecto® (fluralaner) and other five as a control. About 30 females of
Phlebotomus papatasi were allowed to directly feed from dogs at seven days before the administration of the
treatment and Days 3, 17, 31, 45 and 73 post-treatment. Sand fly mortality after feeding was observed every 24 h for
5 days. The Kaplan-Meyer method, Henderson-Tilton formula and a negative binomial mixed model were used to
respectively calculate: (i) mortality and its 95% confidence interval (CI); (ii) efficacy of the insecticide at killing sand flies
in 24 h; and (iii) differences in the risk of sand fly death at 24 h after feeding.
Results: Control sand fly mortality 24 h after feeding was always ≤ 20% and mortality in the fluralaner group ranged
from 2% (95% CI: 0–4%) 7 days before treatment to 100% at 3 days post-treatment. Fluralaner efficacy was 100, 93, 94
and 75% at Days 3, 17, 31 and 45, respectively (P < 0.0001). The increase in the risk of sand fly death was 32.9 (95% CI:
4–263), 76 (95% CI: 8–705), 95.8 (95% CI: 9–1029) and 10.6 times (95% CI: 1.43–79) on Days 3, 17, 31 and 45, respectively
Conclusions: The efficacy of fluralaner, orally administered to dogs, against sand-flies was above 90% for 31 days.
Fluralaner administered to dogs should be further evaluated as a control strategy in ZVL endemic areas
Visceral leishmaniasis: Spatiotemporal heterogeneity and drivers underlying the hotspots in Muzaffarpur, Bihar, India
Background:
Despite the overall decrease in visceral leishmaniasis (VL) incidence on the Indian subcontinent, there remain spatiotemporal clusters or ‘hotspots’ of new cases. The characteristics of
these hotspots, underlying transmission dynamics, and their importance for shaping control
strategies are not yet fully understood and are investigated in this study for a VL endemic
area of ~100,000 inhabitants in Bihar, India between 2007–2015.
Methodology/Principal findings
VL incidence (cases/10,000/year) dropped from 12.3 in 2007 to 0.9 in 2015, which is just
below the World Health Organizations’ threshold for elimination as a public health problem.
Clustering of VL was assessed between subvillages (hamlets), using multiple geospatial
and (spatio)temporal autocorrelation and hotspot analyses. One to three hotspots were
identified each year, often persisting for 1–5 successive years with a modal radius of
~500m. The relative risk of having VL was 5–86 times higher for inhabitants of hotspots,
compared to those living outside hotspots. Hotspots harbour significantly more households
from the two lowest asset quintiles (as proxy for socio-economic status). Overall, children
and young adelescents (5–14 years) have the highest risk for VL, but within hotspots and at
the start of outbreaks, older age groups (35+ years) show a comparable high risk.
Conclusions/Significance:
This study demonstrates significant spatiotemporal heterogeneity in VL incidence at subdistrict level. The association between poverty and hotspots confirms that VL is a disease of
‘the poorest of the poor’ and age patterns suggest a potential role of waning immunity as underlying driver of hotspots. The recommended insecticide spraying radius of 500m
around detected VL cases corresponds to the modal hotspot radius found in this study.
Additional data on immunity and asymptomatic infection, and the development of spatiotemporally explicit transmission models that simulate hotspot dynamics and predict the impact
of interventions at the smaller geographical scale will be crucial tools in sustaining
elimination
Clinical and immunological characteristics of tegumentary leishmaniasis cases in Bolivia
Background Tegumentary leishmaniasis (TL) is a parasitic disease that can present a cutaneous or mucocutaneous clinical form (CL and MCL, respectively). The disease is caused by different Leishmania species and transmitted by phlebotomine sand flies. Bolivia has one of the highest incidences of the disease in South America and the diagnosis is done by parasitological techniques. Our aim was to describe the clinical and immunological characteristics of CL and MCL patients attending the leishmaniasis reference center in Cochabamba, Bolivia, in order to gain updated clinical and epidemiological information, to evaluate the diagnostic methods used and to identify biomarkers related to clinical disease and its evolution. Methodology/Principal findings The study was conducted from September 2014 to November 2015 and 135 patients with lesions compatible with CL or MCL were included. Epidemiological and clinical data were collected using a semi-structured questionnaire. Two parasitological diagnostic methods were used: Giemsa-stained smears and culture of lesion aspirates. Blood samples obtained from participants were used to measure the concentrations of different cytokines. 59.2% (80/135) were leishmaniasis confirmed cases (CL: 71.3%; MCL: 28.7%). Sixty percent of the confirmed cases were positive by smears and 90.6% were positive by culture. 53.8% were primo-infections. Eotaxin and monokine induced by IFN-γ presented higher serum concentrations in the MCL clinical presentation compared to CL cases and no-cases. None of the cytokines presented different concentrations between primo-infections and secondary infections due to treatment failure. Conclusions/Significance In Bolivia, parasitological diagnosis remains the reference standard in diagnosis of leishmaniasis because of its high specificity, whereas the sensitivity varies over a wide range leading to loss of cases. Until more accurate tools are implemented, all patients should be tested by both smears and culture of lesion aspirates to minimize the risk of false negatives. Our results showed higher concentrations of several cytokines in MCL compared to CL, but no differences were observed between CL and no-cases. In addition, none of the cytokines differed between primary and secondary infections. These results highlight the need of further research to identify biomarkers of susceptibility and disease progression, in addition to looking at the local cellular immune responses in the lesions
Systemic insecticide treatment of the canine reservoir of Trypanosoma cruzi induces high levels of lethality in Triatoma infestans, a principal vector of Chagas disease
BACKGROUND: Despite large-scale reductions in Chagas disease
prevalence across Central and South America, Trypanosoma cruzi
infection remains a considerable public health problem in the
Gran Chaco region where vector-borne transmission persists. In
these communities, peridomestic animals are major blood-meal
sources for triatomines, and household presence of infected dogs
increases T. cruzi transmission risk for humans. To address the
pressing need for field-friendly, complementary methods to
reduce triatomine infestation and interrupt T. cruzi
transmission, this study evaluated the systemic activity of
three commercial, oral, single dose insecticides Fluralaner
(Bravecto(R)), Afoxolaner (NexGard(R)) and Spinosad
(Comfortis(R)) in canine feed-through assays against Triatoma
infestans, the principal domestic vector species in the Southern
Cone of South America. METHODS: Twelve healthy, outbred dogs
were recruited from the Zoonosis Surveillance and Control
Program in Santa Cruz, Bolivia, and randomized to three
treatment groups, each containing one control and three treated
dogs. Following oral drug administration, colony-reared second
and third stage T. infestans instars were offered to feed on
dogs for 30 min at 2, 7, 21, 34 and 51 days post-treatment.
RESULTS: Eighty-five per cent (768/907) of T. infestans
successfully blood-fed during bioassays, with significantly
higher proportions of bugs becoming fully-engorged when exposed
to Bravecto(R) treated dogs (P < 0.001) for reasons unknown.
Exposure to Bravecto(R) or NexGard(R) induced 100% triatomine
mortality in fully- or semi-engorged bugs within 5 days of
feeding for the entire follow-up period. The lethality effect
for Comfortis(R) was much lower (50-70%) and declined almost
entirely after 51 days. Instead Comfortis(R) treatment resulted
in substantial morbidity; of these, 30% fully recovered whereas
53% remained morbid after 120 h, the latter subsequently unable
to feed 30 days later. CONCLUSIONS: A single oral dose of
Fluralaner or Afoxolaner was safe and well tolerated, producing
complete triatomine mortality on treated dogs over 7.3 weeks.
While both drugs were highly efficacious, more bugs exposed to
Fluralaner took complete blood-meals, and experienced rapid
knock-down. Coupled with its longer residual activity,
Fluralaner represents an ideal insecticide for development into
a complementary, operationally-feasible, community-level method
of reducing triatomine infestation and potentially controlling
T. cruzi transmission, in the Gran Chaco region
Intradomiciliary and peridomiciliary captures of sand flies (Diptera: Psychodidae) in the leishmaniasis endemic area of Chapare province, Tropic of Cochabamba, Bolivia
In South America, cutaneous leishmaniasis is the most frequent clinical form of leishmaniasis. Bolivia is one of the countries with higher incidence, with 33 cases per 100,000 individuals, and the disease is endemic in 70% of the territory. In the last decade, the number of cases has increased, the age range has expanded, affecting children under 5 years old, and a similar frequency between men and women is found. An entomological study with CDC light traps was conducted in three localities (Chipiriri, Santa Elena and Pedro Domingo Murillo) of the municipality of Villa Tunari, one of the main towns in the Chapare province (Department of Cochabamba, Bolivia). A total of 16 specimens belonging to 6 species of the genus Lutzomyia were captured: Lu. aragaoi, Lu. andersoni, Lu. antunesi, Lu. shawi, Lu. yuilli yuilli and Lu. auraensis. Our results showed the presence of two incriminated vectors of leishmaniasis in an urbanized area and in the intradomicile. More entomological studies are required in the Chapare province to confirm the role of vector sand flies, the intradomiciliary transmission of the disease and the presence of autochthonous cases of cutaneous leishmaniasis
"Kala-Azar is a Dishonest Disease": Community Perspectives on Access Barriers to Visceral Leishmaniasis (Kala-Azar) Diagnosis and Care in Southern Gadarif, Sudan
Early diagnosis and treatment is the principal strategy to
control visceral leishmaniasis (VL), or kala-azar in East
Africa. As VL strikes remote rural, sparsely populated areas,
kala-azar care might not be accessed optimally or timely. We
conducted a qualitative study to explore access barriers in a
longstanding kala-azar endemic area in southern Gadarif, Sudan.
Former kala-azar patients or caretakers, community leaders, and
health-care providers were purposively sampled and thematic data
analysis was used. Our study participants revealed the multitude
of difficulties faced when seeking care. The disease is well
known in the area, yet misconceptions about causes and
transmission persist. The care-seeking itineraries were not
always straightforward: "shopping around" for treatments are
common, partly linked to difficulties in diagnosing kala-azar.
Kala-azar is perceived to be "hiding," requiring multiple tests
and other diseases must be treated first. Negative perceptions
on quality of care in the public hospitals prevail, with the
unavailability of drugs or staff as the main concern. Delay to
seek care remains predominantly linked to economic constraint:
albeit treatment is for free, patients have to pay out of pocket
for everything else, pushing families further into poverty.
Despite increased efforts to tackle the disease over the years,
access to quality kala-azar care in this rural Sudanese context
remains problematic. The barriers explored in this study are a
compelling reminder of the need to boost efforts to address
these barriers
Target product profile for a test for the early assessment of treatment efficacy in Chagas disease patients: An expert consensus.
Six to 7 million people are estimated to be infected by Trypanosoma cruzi, the parasite causing Chagas disease. Thirty to 40% of them, i.e., 1.8 to 2.4 million people, will suffer cardiac disorders and/or digestive clinical manifestations if they are not treated early during the course of the infection [1, 2]. However, only a small fraction of patients are properly diagnosed and treated [3]. Current clinical guidelines recommend treating T. cruzi–infected people if they are asymptomatic or present early symptoms of the disease (Table 1) [4, 5]. Benznidazole (BNZ) and nifurtimox (NFX) are the first-line antiparasitic treatments currently available, both with long administration regimens (60 days) that can produce adverse side effects [6–8]. Despite the fact they are not 100% effective in patients with chronic disease [9–12], they are the only drugs currently registered, and the benefits of their administration have been confirmed in several clinical studies. Currently, clinical trials with new compounds, using alternative regimens that aim to maintain efficacy whilst reducing toxicity, are ongoing and could lead to new therapeutic opportunities and/or policy change
Risk assessment of BTV-3 incursion from Sardinia by wind dispersal of Culicoides midges
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