Prepositional Phrase Attachment Ambiguities in Declarative and Interrogative Contexts: Oral Reading Data

Certain English sentences containing multiple prepositional phrases (e.g., She had planned to cram the paperwork in the drawer into her briefcase) have been reported to be prone to mis-parsing of a kind that is standardly called a “garden path.” The mis-parse stems from the temporary ambiguity of the first prepositional phrase (PP1: in the drawer), which tends to be interpreted initially as the goal argument of the verb cram. If the sentence ended there, that would be correct. But that analysis is overridden when the second prepositional phrase (PP2: into her briefcase) is encountered, since the into phrase can only be interpreted as the goal argument of the verb. Thus, PP2 necessarily supplants PP1’s initially assigned position as goal, and PP1 must be reanalyzed as a modifier of the object NP (the paperwork). Interrogative versions of the same sentence structure (Had she planned to cram the paperwork in the drawer into her briefcase?) may have a different profile. They have been informally judged to be easier to process than their declarative counterparts, because they are less susceptible to the initial garden path analysis. The study presented here represents an attempt to find a behavioral correlate of this intuitive difference in processing difficulty. The experiment employs the Double Reading Paradigm (Fodor, Macaulay, Ronkos, Callahan, and Peckenpaugh, 2019). Participants were asked to read aloud a visually presented sentence twice, first without taking any time at all to preview the sentence content (Reading 1), and then again after unlimited preview (Reading 2). The experimental items were created in a 2 x 2 design with one factor being Speech Act (declarative vs. interrogative) and the other being PP2 Status, i.e., PP2 could only be an argument of the verb iv (Arg), as above, or else PP2 could be interpreted as a modifier (Mod) of the NP within the preceding PP, as in She had / Had she planned to cram the paperwork in the drawer of her filing cabinet(?). Participants’ recordings of Reading 1 and Reading 2 were subjected to prosodic coding by a linguist who was naive to the research question. Distributions of prosodic boundaries were statistically analyzed to extract any significant differences in prosodic boundary patterns as a function of Speech Act, Reading, or PP2 Status. Logistic mixed effect regression models indicated, as anticipated, a significant effect of PP2 Status across all analyses of prosodic phrasing, and a significant effect of Reading for both analyses of prosodic phrasing that included boundary strength. Speech Act was a significant predictor in one of prosodic phrasing, but the hypothesized interaction (between Speech Act and PP2 Status) was not significant in any model. Another analysis concerned the amount of time a participant spent silently studying a sentence after Reading 1 to be confident they had understood it before reading it aloud again (Reading 2). The time between readings is referred to as the inter-reading time (IRT). It was assumed that a longer IRT signifies greater processing difficulty of the sentence. Thus, IRT was hypothesized to provide a behavioral correlate of the intuitive judgement that the interrogative garden paths are easier to process than the declarative ones. If a correlate had been found, it would have taken the form of an interaction between the two factors (Speech Act and PP2 Status) such that the IRT difference between Arg and Mod sentence versions was smaller for interrogatives than for declaratives. Ultimately, however, no statistically significant interaction between Speech Act and PP2 Status was found. Further studies seeking behavioral evidence of the informal intuition motivating this research are proposed. Also offered are possible explanations for why the intuition is apparently so strong for some English speakers, and why, if so, it is not reflected in IRT. Significant ancillary findings are that interrogatives are in general more difficult to process than corresponding declaratives. Also, inter-reading time (IRT) in the Double Reading paradigm is confirmed as a useful measure of sentence processing difficulty given that within the declarative sentences, the garden-path (Arg) versions showed significantly longer IRTs than the non-garden-path (Mod) versions

Nutrition essentials and diet therapy, 11th ed./ Peckenpaugh

xxii, 697 hal.: ill, tab.; 23 cm

Nutrition essentials and diet therapy, 11th ed./ Peckenpaugh

xxii, 697 hal.: ill, tab.; 23 cm

Water-Resources Investigations Report 83-4219

From purpose and scope: There are two principal purposes for this study. The first is to describe the hydrogeologic system of the study area. The second is to develop and demonstrate a capability for evaluating, quantitatively, the effects of different management alternatives on water levels and on streamflow in the study area

THE EFFECT OF KINESIO TAPE ON RETURN TO PLAY READINESS IN INJURED COLLEGE ATHLETES

J. Peckenpaugh, B. Miller, E. Mills, W. M. Silvers Whitworth University, Spokane, WA There is evidence that Kinesio Tape (KT) can facilitate pain reduction and proprioception across a range of movements. It remains unknown whether KT can affect psychological factors, such as confidence and fear avoidance, that influence return to play readiness following injury. PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of KT on the readiness to play for college student-athletes. METHODS: Undergraduate student-athletes between the ages of 18-23 years old who sustained an injury in the preceding two years were identified as the target population. Forty-three eligible student-athletes consented to participate in a survey that included retrospective questions regarding the use of KT, confidence for return to play with the use of the Injury-Psychological Readiness to Return to Sport Scale (I-PRRS), and fear avoidance with the use of the Athlete Fear Avoidance Questionnaire (AFAQ). An independent groups t-test (p ≤ 0.05) was used to determine significant differences between those who did and did not use KT. RESULTS: There was no significant difference in I-PRRS scores (confidence) between those who reported KT use (39.67 ± 8.84) and those who did not (32.00 ± 13.55; F = 3.889, p = 0.055). There was no significant difference in AFAQ (fear avoidance) between those who reported KT use (28.60 ± 7.68) and those who did not (33.82 ± 8.92; F = 3.672, p = 0.0562). Small effect sizes (d = 0.082-0.087) and moderate observed beta (ꞵ = 0.52-0.54) for I-PRRS and AFAQ indicated a moderate probability that a Type II error was committed for both comparisons. CONCLUSION: Under the present research circumstances, KT use did not appear to significantly influence confidence or fear avoidance in return to play situations. The retrospective aspect of questioning, and disproportionate representation of certain sports and injuries may have introduced too much variance in I-PRRS and AFAQ scores to elucidate a clear benefit of KT use. It also is possible that the sample of participants was too small to definitively rule out a beneficial effect of KT on confidence and fear avoidance. Future research studies in this area should incorporate a larger sample of athletes from several different sports, a larger variety of injuries, and more recent survey recall to build upon these findings

Effects of climate, vegetation, and soils on consumptive water use and ground-water recharge to the central midwest regional aquifer system, mid-continent United States /

Bibliography: p. 77-78.Mode of access: Internet

Nitrate Leaching under Furrow Irrigation as Affected by Crop Sequence and Tillage

The potential for NO3-N leaching after alfalfa (Medicago saliva L.) in irrigated crop production depends on cropping sequence and tillage practices. A 2-yr field experiment in south-central Idaho compared the NO3-N leached following alfalfa of a conventional tillage bean-bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) rotation with a silage corn (Zea mays L.)-winter wheat (Trilicum aeslivum L.) rotation in a conventional tillage or no-till system. Nitrate leaching was determined by: (i) sam-pling the soil solution below the root zone (1.2 and 1.5 m) using ceramic-tipped samplers and calculating the N movement from the water balance, and (ii) measuring the change in soil NO 3-N at 1.35 to 4.5 m from soil samples taken in the fall and spring to 4.5 m. During the second growing season, average soil solution NO 3-N concentrations (below the root zone) were 28, 4, and 10 mg L- ' for the bean-bean, corn-wheat no-till, and corn-wheat tilled treatments, respectively. The soil NO3-N in 1.35 to 3.3 m at the end of the study was 80 kg N ha- 1 higher for the bean-bean treatment than for the corn-wheat treatments. The NO3-N that moved below 1.35 m during the 2 yr was 53 kg ha- 1 higher for the bean-bean than for the corn-wheat treatments. The soil NO 3-N in the 1.35 to 3.3 m depth after 2 yr was 21 kg ha- ' higher for the corn-wheat under conventional tillage than under the no-till system