Liberalism, the Only True Humanism

Liberalism is often criticized because it is said that it is concerned only by economic problems (and not more general human problems) and because it is in favor of selfishness. This is wrong and, in fact, liberalism is, on the contrary, the necessary consequence of a universal and valid conception of ethics. The foundation of liberalism consists in the fact that everyone must be respectful of the legitimate rights of any person (as regards, for instance, his body, his mind, and his legitimate property rights). Therefore, it implies that one ought to be respectful of another person either if this person is generous or if he is selfish (one is not obliged to be selfish, but one has the right to be selfish). Thus, liberalism is founded on the fundamental universal ethics and it is respectful of the individual conceptions of personal ethics. It is not in favor of selfishness, but in favor of individualism. This is why it must be said that liberalism is the only humanistic approach of social problems. However, many people consider that it is ethically justified to impose a redistribution policy to decrease so-called “social inequalities.” But, so doing, a state is not respectful of the legitimate property rights of those who are obliged by legal constraint to pay taxes. A voluntary distribution of resources from individuals who give part of their legitimate resources to other individuals is ethically justified. But it is not the case whenever this transfer of resources is made by using coercion. And it must be added that it has negative consequences. Those who benefit from the redistribution policy are less induced to make productive efforts. And those who have to pay the taxes are also less induced to develop their productive activities. Therefore, the production of resources is diminished by the redistribution policy and all the members of a society (for instance a country) suffer from this non-ethical policy

Deep brain stimulation of the center median-parafascicular complex of the thalamus has efficient anti-parkinsonian action associated with widespread cellular responses in the basal ganglia network in a rat model of Parkinson's disease.

International audienceThe thalamic centromedian-parafascicular (CM/Pf) complex, mainly represented by Pf in rodents, is proposed as an interesting target for the neurosurgical treatment of movement disorders, including Parkinson's disease. In this study, we examined the functional impact of subchronic high-frequency stimulation (HFS) of Pf in the 6-hydroxydopamine-lesioned hemiparkinsonian rat model. Pf-HFS had significant anti-akinetic action, evidenced by alleviation of limb use asymmetry (cylinder test). Whereas this anti-akinetic action was moderate, Pf-HFS totally reversed lateralized neglect (corridor task), suggesting potent action on sensorimotor integration. At the cellular level, Pf-HFS partially reversed the dopamine denervation-induced increase in striatal preproenkephalin A mRNA levels, a marker of the neurons of the indirect pathway, without interfering with the markers of the direct pathway (preprotachykinin and preprodynorphin). Pf-HFS totally reversed the lesion-induced changes in the gene expression of cytochrome oxidase subunit I in the subthalamic nucleus, the globus pallidus, and the substantia nigra pars reticulata, and partially in the entopeduncular nucleus. Unlike HFS of the subthalamic nucleus, Pf-HFS did not induce per se dyskinesias and directly, although partially, alleviated L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA)-induced forelimb dyskinesia. Conversely, L-DOPA treatment negatively interfered with the anti-parkinsonian effect of Pf-HFS. Altogether, these data show that Pf-DBS, by recruiting a large basal ganglia circuitry, provides moderate to strong anti-parkinsonian benefits that might, however, be affected by L-DOPA. The widespread behavioral and cellular outcomes of Pf-HFS evidenced here demonstrate that CM/Pf is an important node for modulating the pathophysiological functioning of basal ganglia and related disorders

Striatal molecular signature of subchronic subthalamic nucleus high frequency stimulation in parkinsonian rat

International audienceThis study addresses the molecular mechanisms underlying the action of subthalamic nucleus high frequency stimulation (STN-HFS) in the treatment of Parkinson's disease and its interaction with levodopa (L-DOPA), focusing on the striatum. Striatal gene expression profile was assessed in rats with nigral dopamine neuron lesion, either treated or not, using agilent microarrays and qPCR verification. The treatments consisted in anti-akinetic STN-HFS (5 days), chronic L-DOPA treatment inducing dyskinesia (LIDs) or the combination of the two treatments that exacerbated LIDs. STN-HFS modulated 71 striatal genes. The main biological processes associated with the differentially expressed gene products include regulation of growth, of apoptosis and of synaptic transmission, and extracellular region is a major cellular component implicated. In particular, several of these genes have been shown to support survival or differentiation of striatal or of dopaminergic neurons. These results indicate that STN HFS may induce widespread anatomo-functional rearrangements in the striatum and create a molecular environment favorable for neuroprotection and neuroplasticity. STN-HFS and L-DOPA treatment share very few common gene regulation features indicating that the molecular substrates underlying their striatal action are mostly different; among the common effects is the down-regulation of Adrb1, which encodes the adrenergic beta-1-receptor, supporting a major role of this receptor in Parkinson's disease. In addition to genes already reported to be associated with LIDs (preprodynorphin, thyrotropin-releasing hormone, metabotropic glutamate receptor 4, cannabinoid receptor 1), the comparison between DOPA and DOPA/HFS identifies immunity-related genes as potential players in L-DOPA side effects

Postnatal Tshz3 Deletion Drives Altered Corticostriatal Function and Autism Spectrum Disorder–like Behavior

International audienceBACKGROUND: Heterozygous deletion of the TSHZ3 gene, encoding for the teashirt zinc-finger homeobox family member 3 (TSHZ3) transcription factor that is highly expressed in cortical projection neurons (CPNs), has been linked to an autism spectrum disorder (ASD) syndrome. Similarly, mice with Tshz3 haploinsufficiency show ASD-like behavior, paralleled by molecular changes in CPNs and corticostriatal synaptic dysfunctions. Here, we aimed at gaining more insight into "when" and "where" TSHZ3 is required for the proper development of the brain, and its deficiency crucial for developing this ASD syndrome. METHODS: We generated and characterized a novel mouse model of conditional Tshz3 deletion, obtained by crossing Tshz3 flox/flox with CaMKIIalpha-Cre mice, in which Tshz3 is deleted in CPNs from postnatal day 2 to 3 onward. We characterized these mice by a multilevel approach combining genetics, cell biology, electrophysiology, behavioral testing, and bioinformatics. RESULTS: These conditional Tshz3 knockout mice exhibit altered cortical expression of more than 1000 genes, w50% of which have their human orthologue involved in ASD, in particular genes encoding for glutamatergic syn-apse components. Consistently, we detected electrophysiological and synaptic changes in CPNs and impaired corticostriatal transmission and plasticity. Furthermore, these mice showed strong ASD-like behavioral deficits. CONCLUSIONS: Our study reveals a crucial postnatal role of TSHZ3 in the development and functioning of the corticostriatal circuitry and provides evidence that dysfunction in these circuits might be determinant for ASD pathogenesis. Our conditional Tshz3 knockout mouse constitutes a novel ASD model, opening the possibility for an early postnatal therapeutic window for the syndrome linked to TSHZ3 haploinsufficiency

Wirtschaftspolitik und wirtschaftliche Aussichten in den Industrieländern

Der vorliegende Bericht, der neunte in dieser Reihe, ist das Ergebnis einer Konferenz unabhängiger Ökonomen aus Japan, Westeuropa und Nordamerika. Wie auch im letzten Jahr, stand die Wirtschaftspolitik, die in den Ländern dieser drei Regionen betrieben wurde, im Mittelpunkt der Gespräche. Die Konferenz fand vom 2. -4. November 1977 bei der Brookings Institution in Washington unter dem Vorsitz des Unterzeichneten statt und wurde vom Institut für Weltwirtschaft, dem Japan Economic Research Center und der Brookings Institution gefördert. Die wirtschaftspolitischen Ergebnisse dieser Tagung wurden in einer Pressemitteilung zusammengefaßt und veröffentlicht. Dieser Bericht gibt Auskunft über den Hintergrund, auf dem die wirtschaftspolitischen Empfehlungen zustande kamen. Der erste Abschnitt beschreibt die wirtschaftliche Entwicklung während des vergangenen Jahres in jeder der drei Regionen. Dabei wird der Tatsache Rechnung getragen, daß die wirtschaftliche Entwicklung dieser Länder sowohl Gemeinsamkeiten als auch Unterschiede aufweist. Anschließend wird ein Ausblick für das kommende Jahr gegeben, und die wechselseitigen Einflüsse zwischen den Regionen werden kurz untersucht. Danach folgt eine Diskussion jener Probleme, die in allen oder zumindest den meisten Ländern bestehen und einer befriedigenderen wirtschaftlichen Entwicklung im Wege stehen. Der Bericht endet mit der Darstellung der wirtschaftspolitischen Empfehlungen der Gruppe. Die Tagung und dieser Bericht wurden durch die Förderung durch den German Marshall Fund ermöglicht, dessen Präsident, Robert Gerald Livingston, der Konferenz beiwohnte. Die Teilnehmer der Konferenz, die die wirtschaftspolitischen Empfehlungen erarbeiteten, taten dies im eigenen Namen, nicht aber für die Institute, denen sie angehören. Dieser Bericht wird in Europa vom Institut für Weltwirtschaft, in Japan vom Japan Economic Research Center und in Nordamerika von der Brookings Institution publiziert. --

Differential organization of cortical inputs to striatal projection neurons of the matrix compartment in rats

In prior studies, we described the differential organization of corticostriatal and thalamostriatal inputs to the spines of direct pathway (dSPNs) and indirect pathway striatal projection neurons (iSPNs) of the matrix compartment. In the present electron microscopic (EM) analysis, we have refined understanding of the relative amounts of cortical axospinous vs. axodendritic input to the two types of SPNs. Of note, we found that individual dSPNs receive about twice as many axospinous synaptic terminals from IT-type (intratelencephalically projecting) cortical neurons as they do from PT-type (pyramidal tract projecting) cortical neurons. We also found that PT-type axospinous synaptic terminals were about 1.5 times as common on individual iSPNs as IT-type axospinous synaptic terminals. Overall, a higher percentage of IT-type terminals contacted dSPN than iSPN spines, while a higher percentage of PT-type terminals contacted iSPN than dSPN spines. Notably, IT-type axospinous synaptic terminals were significantly larger on iSPN spines than on dSPN spines. By contrast to axospinous input, the axodendritic PT-type input to dSPNs was more substantial than that to iSPNs, and the axodendritic IT-type input appeared to be meager and comparable for both SPN types. The prominent axodendritic PT-type input to dSPNs may accentuate their PT-type responsiveness, and the large size of axospinous IT-type terminals on iSPNs may accentuate their IT-type responsiveness. Using transneuronal labeling with rabies virus to selectively label the cortical neurons with direct input to the dSPNs projecting to the substantia nigra pars reticulata, we found that the input predominantly arose from neurons in the upper layers of motor cortices, in which IT-type perikarya predominate. The differential cortical input to SPNs is likely to play key roles in motor control and motor learning

Caracterisation des effets de l'interruption des transmissions cortico-striee et dopaminergique nigro-striee sur des populations neuronales neurochimiquement identifiees su striatum chez le rat. Approche morphologique combinant des methodes d'immunocytochimie et d'hybridation in situ

Available from INIST (FR), Document Supply Service, under shelf-number : TD 83945 / INIST-CNRS - Institut de l'Information Scientifique et TechniqueSIGLEFRFranc

Épargne,investissement et fiscalité

[fre] Parmi les différentes mesures fiscales généralement préconisées pour stimuler l'investissement — des diminutions d'impôts sur l'investissement ou sur l'épargne ou des aides fiscales à l'investissement — le présent article explique pourquoi il faut éviter les aides à l'investissement et donner la préférence aux mesures relatives à l'impôt sur le revenu ou aux impôts sur le capital plutôt qu'a l'impôt sur le bénéfice des sociétés. En effet, l'impôt sur le revenu introduit des distorsions entre la consommation (qui est favorisée) et l'épargne, les impôts sur le capital introduisent des distorsions entre différentes formes de capital et l'impôt sur les souetes introduit, pour sa part, des distorsions entre différentes formes d'entreprises et entre les fonds propres et les fonds empruntés. Par ailleurs, tous ces impôts entraînent, à des titres divers, une diminution de l'éparne. Si toutes les distorsions sont fâcheuses, il n'en reste pas moins que la diminution de la discrimination dont l'épargne est l'objet, par l'intermédiaire de l'impôt sur le revenu ou les impôts sur le capital, est la plus apte à accroître le niveau de l'épargne et de l'investissement. Quant aux aides à l'investissement, elles sont peu utiles s'il n'existe pas une épargne correspondante et elles sont nécessairement arbitraires. [eng] This article discusses some of the tax measures which are usually suggested in order to stimulate investment. They concern either a decrease ot taxes on saving or investment, or tax exemptions and subsidies in favor of investment. This article explains why the latter ones have to be avoided and it gives reasons for prefering measures related with the income tax or capital taxes rather than to the ior[x>rate tax. In tact, the income tax introduces distorsions between consumption (which is favored) and savings, capital taxes introduce distorsions between different forms of capital, and the corporation tax. Introduces, on the one hand, distorsions between different categories of firms, and, on the other hand between equity capital and borrowed capital. Moreover, all these taxes cause a decrease in the total amount of savings. Although all the distorsions ought to be avoided, a decrease in the discrimination against savings implied by the income tax and capital taxes would be the most efficient device to increase the level of investment. Tax exemptions and subsidies in favor of investment are not very useful in the absence of corresponding savings and they are necessarily arbitrary.

Les obstacles à l'emploi

[fre] Deux séries de facteurs sont essentiels pour comprendre le chômage français et donc pour lui apporter des solutions: —la première série de facteurs est constituée par l'ensemble des réglementations qui introduisent des rigidités sur le marché du travail et empêchent l'ajustement entre les offreurs et les demandeurs de travail. Parmi elles figure évidemment le salaire minimum. Mais toutes les réglementations du marché du travail jouent également un rôle. Ainsi en est-il de la définition légale du temps de travail. De ce point de vue, il faudrait non pas diminuer la durée du travail, mais, bien au contraire, rendre possible son augmentation ; -la deuxième série de facteurs est constituée par les obstacles que crée l'actuel système de prélèvements obligatoires. Parce qu'il conduit à l'irresponsabilité, il détruit tout le système d'incitations qui conduit les uns à proposer leurs services de travail, les autres à entreprendre et donc à embaucher. Ce ne sont pas seulement les impôts et cotisations prélevés sur les salaires qui sont responsables du chômage, mais les autres également, par exemple l'impôt sur le revenu. Ce qui est atteint par les impôts et cotisations, quelle que soit la définition administrative de leur assiette, c'est l'acte d'échange entre le salaire et les services de travail. C'est pourquoi les cotisations sociales ne sont pas seulement un prélèvement sur les salaires, mais aussi un impôt sur l'activité entrepreneuriale, qui en est donc découragée. La croissance du salaire indirect par rapport au salaire direct est un facteur d'irresponsabilité qui réduit les incitations productives. Une réforme profonde de l'ensemble du système des prélèvements obligatoires est donc nécessaire pour résoudre le problème de l'emploi, qu'il s'agisse des cotisations sociales, des cotisations-chômage ou des impôts. Il convient par contre de refuser des solutions qui sont souvent présentées comme évidentes, par exemple le partage du travail, l'allégement des charges pour les bas salaires, la promotion du travail à temps partiel ou le développement volontariste des services, toutes mesures dont le caractère malthusien — et donc inopérant pour l'emploi — est facile à démontrer. [eng] Two categories of factors have to be considered in order to understand the French unemployment problem and, therefore, to bring solutions: —the first category of factors is constituted by the whole set of regulations which are introducing rigidities on the labour market and prevent adjustment between labour supply and demand. The minimum wage is one of them . But all other labour regulations also play a role, for instance the legal definition of the working time. From this point of view it would be necessary — to solve employment problems — not to decrease the legal working time, but to make possible a longer working time; —the second category of factors is constituted by the obstacles created by the present tax system, as well as the social security system. Because these systems induce irresponsibility, they destroy all the system of incentives by which some people are led to propose their labour services, and others to develop firms and to hire workers. Unemployment does not stem only from those taxes and social security contributions which are assumed to be paid on wages, but from all other ones, for instance the income tax. Whatever is the administrative definition of a tax, what is in fact affected by taxes is the exchange of a wage against labour services. This means that social security contributions are not only levied on wages, but are also a tax on firm activity. The growth of the indirect wage in comparison with the direct wage is a cause of irresponsibility which reduces productive incentives. Therefore a deep reform of the overall system of taxation and social security contributions — as well as unemployment compensations - is necessary in order to solve the unemployment problem. Besides, it is necessary to reject proposals which are often considered as obvious solutions, for instance sharing the working time between workers, alleviating social security contributions on low wages, promoting partial time jobs, or voluntarily developing services. All these measures are malthusian and they would not cure the unemployment problem, quite the contrary.