Carbonic Anhydrase Isozymes as Diagnostic Biomarkers and Therapeutic Targets

The early immunohistochemical studies of carbonic anhydrases (CAs) were mainly focused on their normal tissue distribution. Only a few studies included samples from pathologic diseases, particularly cancer. This line of research remained inactive until the discovery of CA IX—the first cancer-associated isozyme. The association of CA IX with hypoxic regions of tumors became obvious, and experimental results confirmed hypoxia regulation. CA IX is now widely considered a biomarker of tumor hypoxia and prognosis. Even though it has several characteristics of a promising biomarker, the implementation of CA IX in clinical pathology has progressed slowly. CA IX research has also produced promising therapeutic molecules, some of which are already in clinical trials. CA XII is another cancer-associated isozyme; however, it is not yet used as a clinical biomarker in routine diagnostics nor is it utilized in therapeutic applications. Surprisingly, the well-known isozyme CA II has turned out to be an attractive candidate as a diagnostic marker, at least in the special case of gastrointestinal stromal tumors. As a conclusion, certain CA isozymes have definite promise as histopathological markers and therapeutic targets. Even though the implementation of new approaches is a slow process in clinical medicine, the first step has been taken to utilize the unique properties of CA isozymes in diagnostics and therapy.Peer reviewe

Pitkäkestoinen COVID-19

publishedVersionPeer reviewe

Phylogeny and expression of carbonic anhydrase-related proteins

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Carbonic anhydrases (CAs) are found in many organisms, in which they contribute to several important biological processes. The vertebrate α-CA family consists of 16 subfamilies, three of which (VIII, X and XI) consist of acatalytic proteins. These are named carbonic anhydrase related proteins (CARPs), and their inactivity is due to absence of one or more Zn-binding histidine residues. In this study, we analyzed and evaluated the distribution of genes encoding CARPs in different organisms using bioinformatic methods, and studied their expression in mouse tissues using immunohistochemistry and real-time quantitative PCR.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>We collected 84 sequences, of which 22 came from novel or improved gene models which we created from genome data. The distribution of CARP VIII covers vertebrates and deuterostomes, and CARP X appears to be universal in the animal kingdom. <it>CA10</it>-like genes have had a separate history of duplications in the tetrapod and fish lineages. Our phylogenetic analysis showed that duplication of <it>CA10 </it>into <it>CA11 </it>has occurred only in tetrapods (found in mammals, frogs, and lizards), whereas an independent duplication of <it>CA10 </it>was found in fishes. We suggest the name <it>CA10b </it>for the second fish isoform. Immunohistochemical analysis showed a high expression level of CARP VIII in the mouse cerebellum, cerebrum, and also moderate expression in the lung, liver, salivary gland, and stomach. These results also demonstrated low expression in the colon, kidney, and Langerhans islets. CARP X was moderately expressed in the cerebral capillaries and the lung and very weakly in the stomach and heart. Positive signals for CARP XI were observed in the cerebellum, cerebrum, liver, stomach, small intestine, colon, kidney, and testis. In addition, the results of real-time quantitative PCR confirmed a wide distribution for the <it>Car8 </it>and <it>Car11 </it>mRNAs, whereas the expression of the <it>Car10 </it>mRNA was restricted to the frontal cortex, parietal cortex, cerebellum, midbrain, and eye.</p> <p>Conclusions</p> <p>CARP sequences have been strongly conserved between different species, and all three CARPs show high expression in the mouse brain and CARP VIII is also expressed in several other tissues. These findings suggest an important functional role for these proteins in mammals.</p

Management of Entamoeba histolytica Infection : Treatment Strategies and Possible New Drug Targets

acceptedVersionPeer reviewe

Roles of Carbonic Anhydrases and Carbonic Anhydrase Related Proteins in Zebrafish

During recent decades, zebrafish (Danio rerio) have become one of the most important model organisms in which to study different physiological and biological phenomena. The research field of carbonic anhydrases (CAs) and carbonic anhydrase related proteins (CARPs) is not an exception to this. The best-known function of CAs is the regulation of acid–base balance. However, studies performed with zebrafish, among others, have revealed important roles for these proteins in many other physiological processes, some of which had not yet been predicted in the light of previous studies and suggestions. Examples include roles in zebrafish pigmentation as well as motor coordination. Disruption of the function of these proteins may generate lethal outcomes. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge of CA-related studies performed in zebrafish from 1993–2021 that was obtained from PubMed search.publishedVersionPeer reviewe

Assessment of databases to determine the validity of beta- and gamma-carbonic anhydrase sequences from vertebrates

BackgroundThe inaccuracy of DNA sequence data is becoming a serious problem, as the amount of molecular data is multiplying rapidly and expectations are high for big data to revolutionize life sciences and health care. In this study, we investigated the accuracy of DNA sequence data from commonly used databases using carbonic anhydrase (CA) gene sequences as generic targets. CAs are ancient metalloenzymes that are present in all unicellular and multicellular living organisms. Among the eight distinct families of CAs, including alpha, beta, gamma, delta, zeta, eta, theta, and iota, only alpha -CAs have been reported in vertebrates.ResultsBy an in silico analysis performed on the NCBI and Ensembl databases, we identified several beta- and gamma -CA sequences in vertebrates, including Homo sapiens, Mus musculus, Felis catus, Lipotes vexillifer, Pantholops hodgsonii, Hippocampus comes, Hucho hucho, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, Xenopus tropicalis, and Rhinolophus sinicus. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis of genomic DNA persistently failed to amplify positive beta- or gamma -CA gene sequences when Mus musculus and Felis catus DNA samples were used as templates. Further BLAST homology searches of the database-derived "vertebrate" beta- and gamma -CA sequences revealed that the identified sequences were presumably derived from gut microbiota, environmental microbiomes, or grassland ecosystems.ConclusionsOur results highlight the need for more accurate and fast curation systems for DNA databases. The mined data must be carefully reconciled with our best knowledge of sequences to improve the accuracy of DNA data for publication.Peer reviewe

Inhibition studies of the protozoan α-carbonic anhydrase from Trypanosoma cruzi with phenols

The α-class carbonic anhydrase (CA, EC 4.2.1.1) from the protozoan pathogen Trypanosoma cruzi, TcCA, was investigated earlier for its inhibition with anions, sulphonamides, thiols and hydroxamates, well-known classes of CA inhibitors (CAIs). Here we present the first inhibition study of this enzyme with phenols, which possess a diverse CA inhibition mechanism compared to the previously investigated compounds, which are all zinc binders. Indeed, phenols are known to anchor to the zinc coordinated water molecule within the enzyme active site. In a series of 22 diversely substituted phenols, the best inhibitors were simple phenol, pyrocatechol, salicylic acid, 3,5-difluorophenol, 3,4-dihydroxy-benzoic acid, 3,6- dihydroxy-benzoic acid, caffeic acid and its des-hydroxy analog, with KIs of 1.8 - 7.3 µM. The least effective TcCA inhibitor was 3-chloro-4-amino-phenol (KI of 47.9 µM). Although it is not yet clear whether TcCA can be considered as an anti-Chagas disease drug target, as no animal model for investigating the antiprotozoan effects is available so far, finding effective in vitro inhibitors may be a first relevant step towards new antiprotozoal agents.publishedVersionPeer reviewe

Ultrasensitive and rapid diagnostic tool for detection of Acanthamoeba castellanii

Acanthamoeba keratitis is a devastating infectious disease of the cornea caused by an opportunistic amoeba, Acanthamoeba castellanii. It is poorly recognized, and diagnostic delays can lead to irreversible damage to the vision. The gold standard for diagnosis has been a sample culture that lasts approximately 2 weeks. Nevertheless, the essence of time has led to the need for an accurate and fast technique to detect A. castellanii from a sample. We developed both traditional and quantitative real-time-PCR-based methods to detect A. castellanii in less than 3 hours and with the sensitivity of one amoeba. Diagnostic laboratories can select the best-suited method for their purposes from 2 comparable methods. The correct treatment can be initiated from the emergency room when the diagnosis has been made quickly within a few hours, hence saving the patient from long-term complications.publishedVersionPeer reviewe

SARS-CoV-2 variants and COVID-19 vaccines : Current challenges and future strategies

The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has become a global threat. Despite strict control measures implemented worldwide and immunization using novel vaccines, the pandemic continues to rage due to emergence of several variants of SARS-CoV-2 with increased transmission and immune escape. The rapid spread of variants of concern (VOC) in the recent past has created a massive challenge for the control of COVID-19 pandemic via the currently used vaccines. Vaccines that are safe and effective against the current and future variants of SARS-CoV-2 are essential in controlling the COVID-19 pandemic. Rapid production and massive rollout of next-generation vaccines against the variants are key steps to control the COVID-19 pandemic and to help us return to normality. Coordinated surveillance of SARS-CoV-2, rapid redesign of new vaccines and extensive vaccination are needed to counter the current SARS-CoV-2 variants and prevent the emergence of new variants. In this article, we review the latest information on the VOCs and variants of interest (VOIs) and present the information on the clinical trials that are underway on evaluating the effectiveness of COVID-19 vaccines on VOCs. We also discuss the current challenges posed by the VOCs in controlling the COVID-19 pandemic and future strategies to overcome the threat posed by the highly virulent and rapidly transmissible variants of SARS-CoV2.publishedVersionPeer reviewe