The Interpretation of X-Ray and Electron Signals Generated in Thin or Layered Targets

This work outlines the development of a comprehensive theory for the electron probe microanalyser and scanning electron microscope or SEM, that is intended to serve as a framework of understanding for those employing electron beam methods and as a basis for improved correction procedures. There is particular emphasis on applications to layered and non-uniform specimens. Starting from a simple Gaussian depth distribution of electrons and making assumptions about the X-ray production, a series of predictions of X-ray and electron signals are made for various target configurations. When compared with experimental measurements a series of interesting discoveries follow, which, taken altogether, lead to a more refined model with the promise of more accurate analyses and a better understanding of the physics involved

Spectral Decomposition of Wavelength Dispersive X-Ray Spectra: Implications for Quantitative Analysis in the Electron Probe Microanalyzer

The line shapes of Kα, Lα,β and Mα X-ray peaks of pure elements were analyzed by means of commercial wavelength dispersive spectrometers (WDS) attached to an electron probe micro-analyzer (EPMA). A pseudo-Voigt function, i.e., a linear combination of Gaussian and Lorentzian distributions, was used as a fitting profile for the X-ray peaks, with Gaussian offsets incorporated in the short wavelength (high energy) side to describe the observed asymmetry. The asymmetry of X-ray peaks resulting from both instrumental distortions and satellite bands may lead to discrepancies in quantitative analysis with the EPMA as a function of the procedure used for deriving X-ray intensities from WDS spectra, e.g., peak height, peak area, or peak decomposition. These effects have been illustrated by analyzing gold-copper metallic alloys and minerals containing gold at trace levels

Public sector commissioning and the third sector: Old wine in new bottles?

Public sector commissioning has risen rapidly to prominence as the central mechanism for the ‘purchase’ of services in an increasingly mixed economy of public services in the UK and this has wide-ranging consequences for non-state actors including those in the third sector. Academic consideration of commissioning has been rather fragmented, concerned with particular service fields or sectors. This paper provides an overview, with a focus on the relationship between the state and the third sector. The paper begins by questioning whether commissioning is really ‘new’ or a continuation of exist- ing trends around procurement and contracting and whether it constitutes a genuinely transformative relationship between the state and third sector. It considers some core debates about the likely impact of commissioning on the third sector and its relationship with the state. In doing so, the paper advances two main arguments: that commissioning remains highly fragmented in policy and practice, between different localities and scales of government; and that there is a tension within commissioning policy between the ‘rhetoric’ of the ‘full cycle’ approach based on needs assessment and planning, and what appears to be an emerging reality of resource-constrained, large-scale and Payment by Results-based contracting. These raise real concerns for organizational and service quality outcomes

Committee Influence Over Controversial Policy: The Reproductive Policy Case

Peer Reviewedhttp://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/74678/1/j.1541-0072.1999.tb01964.x.pd

Teaching Writing: a situated dynamic

publication-status: Publishedtypes: ArticleThe paper is theoretically grounded in Cultural Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) which holds that human development is founded within participation in social and cultural practices. In particular, the teaching of literacy is shaped not only by the curriculum as designated by policy makers and the institution in which it is located but also by the individuals’ understanding of what literacy and learning involves and how they act to achieve their goals. The paper explores data from a project that investigated the relationship between classroom talk and the teaching of writing in six early years classrooms. Participants’ own understandings of teaching and learning need to be taken into account by researchers and policy makers. CHAT has been used to explore the dynamic relationship between activity at societal, institutional and individual levels. It is argued that researchers and policy makers need to take account of the wider socio-cultural context in planning and evaluating curriculum development initiatives

A Greater Means to the Greater Good: Ethical Guidelines to Meet Social Movement Organization Advocacy Challenges

Existing public relations ethics literature often proves inadequate when applied to social movement campaigns, considering the special communication challenges activists face as marginalized moral visionaries in a commercial public sphere. The communications of counter-hegemonic movements is distinct enough from corporate, nonprofit, and governmental organizations to warrant its own ethical guidelines. The unique communication guidelines most relevant to social movement organizations include promoting asymmetrical advocacy to a greater extent than is required for more powerful organizations and building flexibility into the TARES principles to privilege social responsibility over respect for audience values in activist campaigns serving as ideological critique

Doctors under the microscope: the birth of medical audit

In 1989 a UK government White Paper introduced medical audit as a comprehensive and statutory system of assessment and improvement in quality of care in hospitals. A considerable body of research has described the evolution of medical audit in terms of a struggle between doctors and National Health Service managers over control of quality assurance. In this paper we examine the emergence of medical audit from 1910 to the early 1950s, with a particular focus on the pioneering work of the American surgeons Codman, MacEachern and Ponton. It is contended that medical professionals initially created medical audit in order to articulate a suitable methodology for assessing individual and organisational performance. Rather than a means of protecting the medical profession from public scrutiny, medical auditing was conceived and operationalised as a managerial tool for fostering the active engagement of senior hospital managers and discharging public accountability. These early debates reveal how accounting was implicated in the development of a system for monitoring and improving the work of medical professionals, advancing the quality of hospital care, and was advocated in ways, which included rather than excluded managers

Translating research into policy: lessons learned from eclampsia treatment and malaria control in three southern African countries

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Little is known about the process of knowledge translation in low- and middle-income countries. We studied policymaking processes in Mozambique, South Africa and Zimbabwe to understand the factors affecting the use of research evidence in national policy development, with a particular focus on the findings from randomized control trials (RCTs). We examined two cases: the use of magnesium sulphate (MgSO₄) in the treatment of eclampsia in pregnancy (a clinical case); and the use of insecticide treated bed nets and indoor residual household spraying for malaria vector control (a public health case).</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>We used a qualitative case-study methodology to explore the policy making process. We carried out key informants interviews with a range of research and policy stakeholders in each country, reviewed documents and developed timelines of key events. Using an iterative approach, we undertook a thematic analysis of the data.</p> <p>Findings</p> <p>Prior experience of particular interventions, local champions, stakeholders and international networks, and the involvement of researchers in policy development were important in knowledge translation for both case studies. Key differences across the two case studies included the nature of the evidence, with clear evidence of efficacy for MgSO₄and ongoing debate regarding the efficacy of bed nets compared with spraying; local researcher involvement in international evidence production, which was stronger for MgSO₄than for malaria vector control; and a long-standing culture of evidence-based health care within obstetrics. Other differences were the importance of bureaucratic processes for clinical regulatory approval of MgSO₄, and regional networks and political interests for malaria control. In contrast to treatment policies for eclampsia, a diverse group of stakeholders with varied interests, differing in their use and interpretation of evidence, was involved in malaria policy decisions in the three countries.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>Translating research knowledge into policy is a complex and context sensitive process. Researchers aiming to enhance knowledge translation need to be aware of factors influencing the demand for different types of research; interact and work closely with key policy stakeholders, networks and local champions; and acknowledge the roles of important interest groups.</p