De l’original perdu à la série : nouvelles approches des multiples gréco-romains

Il s’agit d’analyser dans cet essai les approches récentes de la recherche sur la « copie romaine » au sein de l’université et des musées. Tout en retraçant le parcours effectué depuis les pratiques de la Kopienkritik (qui privilégiait l’original grec perdu) jusqu’à la compréhension postmoderniste de la pratique romaine de l’imitation (qui met en évidence la dimension créative de la reproduction), il s’agit de s’intéresser pour finir au xxie siècle. Les dernières découvertes archéologiques (issues pour la plupart de sites de naufrages) ainsi que les études scientifiques plus poussées ont amélioré notre perception des sculptures anciennes en bronze notamment. Non seulement les travaux récents ébranlent la notion de chef-d’œuvre unique mais ils examinent également la production de multiples grecs et romains, abordant des concepts théoriques tels que la standardisation et l’imitation. Cet enthousiasme renouvelé pour la copie a aussi conduit à une reconsidération des plâtres, maintenant aussi bien exploités de manière innovante dans les expositions que par les artistes contemporains qui dialoguent avec l’héritage antique. Le multiple apparaît ainsi comme un terrain propice à la rencontre entre Antiquité et modernité.This essay explores recent approaches to the “Roman copy” in both scholarship and the museum. Charting a shift from practices of Kopienkritik (which privileged the lost Greek original) to the postmodernist embrace of Roman practices of emulation (which celebrates the creativity of replication), it then looks to the twenty-first century. New archaeological discoveries (many from shipwrecks) as well as more advanced scientific analysis have enhanced our understanding of ancient bronze sculpture, in particular. Recent work not only destabilizes the notion of the singular masterpiece but also examines the production of Greek, as well as Roman, multiples, looking to theoretical concepts such as standardization and remediation. An embrace of the copy has also rehabilitated plaster-casts, now creatively employed in both museum displays and by contemporary artists engaging with the antique. The multiple, it turns out, marks a welcome site where antiquity and modernity can meet.Dieser Aufsatz liefert eine Bestandsaufnahme der neueren Forschung an Universitäten und Museen zur „römischen Kopie“. Ausgangspunkt ist die Entwicklung seit der Praxis der Kopienkritik (die das verlorene griechische Original privilegierte) bis hin zur postmodernen Auffassung der römischen Nachahmungspraxis (die das Augenmerk auf die kreative Komponente der Reproduktion richtet), bevor der Artikel mit den neuesten Erkenntnissen des 21. Jahrhunderts abschließt. Jüngste archäologische Funde (meist aus Schauplätzen verschiedener Untergänge) sowie vertiefte wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen haben dabei das Verständnis u. a. von alten Bronzeskulpturen verbessert. Diese neuen Arbeiten haben nicht nur den Begriff des individuellen Meisterwerks erschüttert, sondern untersuchen die Herstellung von griechischen und römischen Multiplen anhand theoretischer Konzepte wie z. B. die Standardisierung und Imitation. Dieser neu gewonnene Enthusiasmus für die Kopie hat auch das Interesse an den Gipsabdrücken erneuert, die mittlerweile sowohl in Ausstellungen auf innovative Weise beleuchtet und von zeitgenössischen Künstlern im Dialog mit dem antiken Erbe eingesetzt werden. Das Multiple erscheint daher als ein fruchtbares Terrain für die Begegnung von Antike und Moderne.Il presente saggio intende analizzare i recenti sviluppi della ricerca sulla «copia romana» nell’ambiente accademico e in quello museale. Lo studio ricostruisce dapprima lo sviluppo della pratica della Kopienkritik (che privilegiava l’originale greco perduto) e analizza la comprensione postmoderna della pratica romana dell’imitazione (che sottolinea la dimensione creativa della riproduzione). Esso si concentra, infine, sul xxi° secolo. Le ultime scoperte archeologiche (fatte per lo più in siti di naufragi), così come le ricerche scientifiche più avanzate, hanno perfezionato la nostra conoscenza delle sculture antiche e, in particolare, di quelle in bronzo. I recenti studi non solo indeboliscono la nozione di capolavoro unico, ma esaminano la produzione delle copie greche e romane affrontando dei concetti teorici come la standardizzazione e l’imitazione. Questo nuovo entusiasmo nei confronti della nozione di copia ha inoltre permesso una riconsiderazione degli intonaci, oggi utilizzati in maniera innovativa sia nelle esposizioni che nelle installazioni degli artisti contemporanei che desiderano dialogare con l’eredità antica. In questo modo, il multiplo appare come un terreno propizio all’incontro tra Antichità e Epoca Moderna.Se analizan en este ensayo las aproximaciones investigativas recientes sobre la “copia romana” en el seno de la universidad y de los museos. Todo reconstruyendo el recorrido efectuado desde las prácticas de la Kopienkritik (que privilegia el original griego perdido) hasta la comprensión postmodernista de la práctica romana de la imitación (que pone en evidencia la dimensión creativa de la reproducción), finalizando así en el siglo xxi. Los últimos descubrimientos arqueológicos (provenientes en su mayoría de sitios naufragados) así como los estudios científicos más especializados han mejorado notablemente nuestra percepción de las esculturas antiguas en bronce. No solamente los trabajos recientes han puesto en cuestión la noción de obra maestra única sino que examinan igualmente la producción de múltiples griegos y romanos, abordando conceptos teóricos como la estandarización y la imitación. Este entusiasmo renovado por la copia ha conducido también a una reconsideración de los yesos, ahora también explotados de manera innovadora en las exposiciones por los artistas contemporáneos que dialogan con la herencia de la antigüedad. El múltiple aparece así como un terreno propicio al encuentro entre Antigüedad y modernidad

Firing the Canon: Plaster Casts and their Discontents

https://egrove.olemiss.edu/classics_lectures/1006/thumbnail.jp

Evaluating the Effects of SARS-CoV-2 Spike Mutation D614G on Transmissibility and Pathogenicity.

Global dispersal and increasing frequency of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein variant D614G are suggestive of a selective advantage but may also be due to a random founder effect. We investigate the hypothesis for positive selection of spike D614G in the United Kingdom using more than 25,000 whole genome SARS-CoV-2 sequences. Despite the availability of a large dataset, well represented by both spike 614 variants, not all approaches showed a conclusive signal of positive selection. Population genetic analysis indicates that 614G increases in frequency relative to 614D in a manner consistent with a selective advantage. We do not find any indication that patients infected with the spike 614G variant have higher COVID-19 mortality or clinical severity, but 614G is associated with higher viral load and younger age of patients. Significant differences in growth and size of 614G phylogenetic clusters indicate a need for continued study of this variant

Evaluating the Effects of SARS-CoV-2 Spike Mutation D614G on Transmissibility and Pathogenicity

Global dispersal and increasing frequency of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein variant D614G are suggestive of a selective advantage but may also be due to a random founder effect. We investigate the hypothesis for positive selection of spike D614G in the United Kingdom using more than 25,000 whole genome SARS-CoV-2 sequences. Despite the availability of a large dataset, well represented by both spike 614 variants, not all approaches showed a conclusive signal of positive selection. Population genetic analysis indicates that 614G increases in frequency relative to 614D in a manner consistent with a selective advantage. We do not find any indication that patients infected with the spike 614G variant have higher COVID-19 mortality or clinical severity, but 614G is associated with higher viral load and younger age of patients. Significant differences in growth and size of 614G phylogenetic clusters indicate a need for continued study of this variant

Hospital admission and emergency care attendance risk for SARS-CoV-2 delta (B.1.617.2) compared with alpha (B.1.1.7) variants of concern: a cohort study

Background: The SARS-CoV-2 delta (B.1.617.2) variant was first detected in England in March, 2021. It has since rapidly become the predominant lineage, owing to high transmissibility. It is suspected that the delta variant is associated with more severe disease than the previously dominant alpha (B.1.1.7) variant. We aimed to characterise the severity of the delta variant compared with the alpha variant by determining the relative risk of hospital attendance outcomes. Methods: This cohort study was done among all patients with COVID-19 in England between March 29 and May 23, 2021, who were identified as being infected with either the alpha or delta SARS-CoV-2 variant through whole-genome sequencing. Individual-level data on these patients were linked to routine health-care datasets on vaccination, emergency care attendance, hospital admission, and mortality (data from Public Health England's Second Generation Surveillance System and COVID-19-associated deaths dataset; the National Immunisation Management System; and NHS Digital Secondary Uses Services and Emergency Care Data Set). The risk for hospital admission and emergency care attendance were compared between patients with sequencing-confirmed delta and alpha variants for the whole cohort and by vaccination status subgroups. Stratified Cox regression was used to adjust for age, sex, ethnicity, deprivation, recent international travel, area of residence, calendar week, and vaccination status. Findings: Individual-level data on 43 338 COVID-19-positive patients (8682 with the delta variant, 34 656 with the alpha variant; median age 31 years [IQR 17–43]) were included in our analysis. 196 (2·3%) patients with the delta variant versus 764 (2·2%) patients with the alpha variant were admitted to hospital within 14 days after the specimen was taken (adjusted hazard ratio [HR] 2·26 [95% CI 1·32–3·89]). 498 (5·7%) patients with the delta variant versus 1448 (4·2%) patients with the alpha variant were admitted to hospital or attended emergency care within 14 days (adjusted HR 1·45 [1·08–1·95]). Most patients were unvaccinated (32 078 [74·0%] across both groups). The HRs for vaccinated patients with the delta variant versus the alpha variant (adjusted HR for hospital admission 1·94 [95% CI 0·47–8·05] and for hospital admission or emergency care attendance 1·58 [0·69–3·61]) were similar to the HRs for unvaccinated patients (2·32 [1·29–4·16] and 1·43 [1·04–1·97]; p=0·82 for both) but the precision for the vaccinated subgroup was low. Interpretation: This large national study found a higher hospital admission or emergency care attendance risk for patients with COVID-19 infected with the delta variant compared with the alpha variant. Results suggest that outbreaks of the delta variant in unvaccinated populations might lead to a greater burden on health-care services than the alpha variant. Funding: Medical Research Council; UK Research and Innovation; Department of Health and Social Care; and National Institute for Health Research

Changes in symptomatology, reinfection, and transmissibility associated with the SARS-CoV-2 variant B.1.1.7: an ecological study

Background The SARS-CoV-2 variant B.1.1.7 was first identified in December, 2020, in England. We aimed to investigate whether increases in the proportion of infections with this variant are associated with differences in symptoms or disease course, reinfection rates, or transmissibility. Methods We did an ecological study to examine the association between the regional proportion of infections with the SARS-CoV-2 B.1.1.7 variant and reported symptoms, disease course, rates of reinfection, and transmissibility. Data on types and duration of symptoms were obtained from longitudinal reports from users of the COVID Symptom Study app who reported a positive test for COVID-19 between Sept 28 and Dec 27, 2020 (during which the prevalence of B.1.1.7 increased most notably in parts of the UK). From this dataset, we also estimated the frequency of possible reinfection, defined as the presence of two reported positive tests separated by more than 90 days with a period of reporting no symptoms for more than 7 days before the second positive test. The proportion of SARS-CoV-2 infections with the B.1.1.7 variant across the UK was estimated with use of genomic data from the COVID-19 Genomics UK Consortium and data from Public Health England on spike-gene target failure (a non-specific indicator of the B.1.1.7 variant) in community cases in England. We used linear regression to examine the association between reported symptoms and proportion of B.1.1.7. We assessed the Spearman correlation between the proportion of B.1.1.7 cases and number of reinfections over time, and between the number of positive tests and reinfections. We estimated incidence for B.1.1.7 and previous variants, and compared the effective reproduction number, Rt, for the two incidence estimates. Findings From Sept 28 to Dec 27, 2020, positive COVID-19 tests were reported by 36 920 COVID Symptom Study app users whose region was known and who reported as healthy on app sign-up. We found no changes in reported symptoms or disease duration associated with B.1.1.7. For the same period, possible reinfections were identified in 249 (0·7% [95% CI 0·6–0·8]) of 36 509 app users who reported a positive swab test before Oct 1, 2020, but there was no evidence that the frequency of reinfections was higher for the B.1.1.7 variant than for pre-existing variants. Reinfection occurrences were more positively correlated with the overall regional rise in cases (Spearman correlation 0·56–0·69 for South East, London, and East of England) than with the regional increase in the proportion of infections with the B.1.1.7 variant (Spearman correlation 0·38–0·56 in the same regions), suggesting B.1.1.7 does not substantially alter the risk of reinfection. We found a multiplicative increase in the Rt of B.1.1.7 by a factor of 1·35 (95% CI 1·02–1·69) relative to pre-existing variants. However, Rt fell below 1 during regional and national lockdowns, even in regions with high proportions of infections with the B.1.1.7 variant. Interpretation The lack of change in symptoms identified in this study indicates that existing testing and surveillance infrastructure do not need to change specifically for the B.1.1.7 variant. In addition, given that there was no apparent increase in the reinfection rate, vaccines are likely to remain effective against the B.1.1.7 variant. Funding Zoe Global, Department of Health (UK), Wellcome Trust, Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (UK), National Institute for Health Research (UK), Medical Research Council (UK), Alzheimer's Society

Genomic assessment of quarantine measures to prevent SARS-CoV-2 importation and transmission

Mitigation of SARS-CoV-2 transmission from international travel is a priority. We evaluated the effectiveness of travellers being required to quarantine for 14-days on return to England in Summer 2020. We identified 4,207 travel-related SARS-CoV-2 cases and their contacts, and identified 827 associated SARS-CoV-2 genomes. Overall, quarantine was associated with a lower rate of contacts, and the impact of quarantine was greatest in the 16–20 age-group. 186 SARS-CoV-2 genomes were sufficiently unique to identify travel-related clusters. Fewer genomically-linked cases were observed for index cases who returned from countries with quarantine requirement compared to countries with no quarantine requirement. This difference was explained by fewer importation events per identified genome for these cases, as opposed to fewer onward contacts per case. Overall, our study demonstrates that a 14-day quarantine period reduces, but does not completely eliminate, the onward transmission of imported cases, mainly by dissuading travel to countries with a quarantine requirement

Investigation of hospital discharge cases and SARS-CoV-2 introduction into Lothian care homes

Background The first epidemic wave of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) in Scotland resulted in high case numbers and mortality in care homes. In Lothian, over one-third of care homes reported an outbreak, while there was limited testing of hospital patients discharged to care homes. Aim To investigate patients discharged from hospitals as a source of SARS-CoV-2 introduction into care homes during the first epidemic wave. Methods A clinical review was performed for all patients discharges from hospitals to care homes from 1st March 2020 to 31st May 2020. Episodes were ruled out based on coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) test history, clinical assessment at discharge, whole-genome sequencing (WGS) data and an infectious period of 14 days. Clinical samples were processed for WGS, and consensus genomes generated were used for analysis using Cluster Investigation and Virus Epidemiological Tool software. Patient timelines were obtained using electronic hospital records. Findings In total, 787 patients discharged from hospitals to care homes were identified. Of these, 776 (99%) were ruled out for subsequent introduction of SARS-CoV-2 into care homes. However, for 10 episodes, the results were inconclusive as there was low genomic diversity in consensus genomes or no sequencing data were available. Only one discharge episode had a genomic, time and location link to positive cases during hospital admission, leading to 10 positive cases in their care home. Conclusion The majority of patients discharged from hospitals were ruled out for introduction of SARS-CoV-2 into care homes, highlighting the importance of screening all new admissions when faced with a novel emerging virus and no available vaccine