Ultrasound monitoring of applied forcing, material ageing, and catastrophic yield of crustal structures

International audienceA new kind of data analysis is discussed ? and a few case histories of actual application are presented ? concerning the physical information attainable by acoustic emission (AE) records in geodynamically active or volcanic areas. The previous analyses of such same kind of observations were reported in several papers appeared in the last few years, and here briefly recalled. They are concerned with the inference of the forcing ("F") acting on the physical system, and on the ageing ("T") or fatigue of its "solid" structures. The new analysis here discussed deals with the distinction between a state of applied stress ("hammer regime"), compared to state of "recovery regime" of the system while it seeks a new equilibrium state after having been perturbed. For instance, in the case of a seismic event ? and according to some kind of almost intuitive argument ? the "hammer regime" is the phenomenon leading to the main shock, while the "recovery regime" deals with the well known aftershocks. Such same intuitive inference, however, can be investigated by a much more formal algorithm, aimed at envisaging the minor changes of the behaviour of the system, during its history and during its present dynamic evolution. As a demonstrative application, detailed consideration is given of AE records ? each one lasting for a few years ? collected on the Italian peninsula vs. records collected on the Kefallinìa Island (western Greece). Such two areas are well known being characterised by some great comparative difference in their respective tectonic setting. When considering planetary scale phenomena, they appear comparatively very close to each other. Hence, they are likely being presumably affected by similar large-scale external actions, although they ought to be expected to respond in some completely different way. Such facts are clearly manifested by some substantially different AE responses of the local crustal structures. However, a full understanding of such entire set of geodynamic and tectonic details ought to require several year data series of AE records, and/or (maybe) also simultaneous AE records collected within some suitable array of AE stations. Such understanding ought to permit the inference of the spatial features of the crustal stress propagation ? including its diagnosis and "forecasting" ? in addition to the temporal diagnosis and "prevision" that can be attained by isolated point-like AE recording stations. Additional analyses are in progress

Novel electronic and magnetic properties of ultrathin chromium oxide films grown on Pt(111)

The growth of epitaxial metal–oxide films on lattice-mismatched metal substrates often results in the formation of unique overlayer structures. In particular, epitaxial chromium oxide films grown on Pt(111) exhibit a p(2×2) symmetry through the first two monolayers of growth which is followed by a (√3×√3)R30° phase that is attributed to the growth of a Cr2O3(0001) overlayer. Ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy measurements have been performed on the CrOx/Pt(111) system. The electronic structures of CrO2, Cr2O3, and Cr3O4 were calculated using the linear muffin-tin orbital method in the atomic sphere approximation. Comparison of the photoemission valence band spectra with the calculated density of states indicates that the CrOx initially grows in a cubic spinel Cr3O4 structure. Beyond ∼0.2 monolayers, the metallic behavior of the CrOx overlayer begins a transformation to an insulating state. The measured valence emission for the p(2×2) phase beyond ∼0.2 monolayers is more consistent with either a γ-Cr2O3(111) overlayer or possibly a reconstructed Cr2O3(0001) overlayer. © 1998 American Vacuum Society

H2S adsorption on chromium, chromia, and gold/chromia surfaces: Photoemission studies

The reaction of H2S with chromium, chromia, and Au/chromia films grown on a Pt(111) crystal has been investigated using synchrotron-based high-resolution photoemission spectroscopy. At 300 K, H2S completely decomposes on polycrystalline chromium producing a chemisorbed layer of S that attenuates the Cr 3d valence features. No evidence was found for the formation of CrSx species. The dissociation of H2S on Cr3O4 and Cr2O3 films at room temperature produces a decrease of 0.3–0.8 eV in the work function of the surface and significant binding-energy shifts (0.2–0.6 eV) in the Cr 3p core levels and Cr 3d features in the valence region. The rate of dissociation of H2S increases following the sequence: Cr2O33O4. For chromium, the density of states near the Fermi level is large, and these states offer a better match in energy for electron acceptor or donor interactions with the frontier orbitals of H2S than the valence and conduction bands of the chromium oxides. This leads to a large dissociation probability for H2S on the metal, and a low dissociation probability for the molecule on the oxides. In the case of Cr3O4 and Cr2O3, there is a correlation between the size of the band gap in the oxide and its reactivity toward H2S. The uptake of sulfur by the oxides significantly increases when they are “promoted” with gold. The Au/Cr2O3 surfaces exhibit a unique electronic structure in the valence region and a larger ability to dissociate H2S than polycrystalline Au or pure Cr2O3. The results of ab initio SCF calculations for the adsorption of H2S on AuCr4O6 and AuCr10O15 clusters show a shift of electrons from the gold toward the oxide unit that enhances the strength of the Au(6s)↔H2S(5a1,2b1) bonding interactions and facilitates the decomposition of the molecule. © 1997 American Institute of Physics

"Storms of crustal stress" and AE earthquake precursors

Acoustic emission (AE) displays violent paroxysms preceding strong earthquakes, observed within some large area (several hundred kilometres wide) around the epicentre. We call them "<i>storms of crustal stress</i>" or, briefly "<i>crustal storms</i>". A few case histories are discussed, all dealing with the Italian peninsula, and with the different behaviour shown by the AE records in the Cephalonia island (Greece), which is characterized by a different tectonic setting. <br><br> AE is an effective tool for diagnosing the state of some wide slab of the Earth's crust, and for monitoring its evolution, by means of AE of different frequencies. The same effect ought to be detected being time-delayed, when referring to progressively lower frequencies. This results to be an effective check for validating the physical interpretation. <br><br> Unlike a seismic event, which involves a much limited focal volume and therefore affects a restricted area on the Earth's surface, a "<i>crustal storm</i>" typically involves some large slab of lithosphere and crust. In general, it cannot be easily reckoned to any specific seismic event. An earthquake responds to strictly local rheological features of the crust, which are eventually activated, and become crucial, on the occasion of a "<i>crustal storm</i>". A "<i>crustal storm</i>" lasts typically few years, eventually involving several destructive earthquakes that hit at different times, at different sites, within that given lithospheric slab. <br><br> Concerning the case histories that are here discussed, the lithospheric slab is identified with the Italian peninsula. During 1996–1997 a "<i>crustal storm</i>" was on, maybe elapsing until 2002 (we lack information for the period 1998–2001). Then, a quiet period occurred from 2002 until 26 May 2008, when a new "<i>crustal storm</i>" started, and by the end of 2009 it is still on. During the 1996–1997 "<i>storm</i>" two strong earthquakes occurred (Potenza and Colfiorito) – and (maybe) in 2002 also the Molise earthquake can be reckoned to this "<i>storm</i>". During the "<i>storm</i>", started in 2008, the l'Aquila earthquake occurred. <br><br> Additional logical analysis envisages the possibility of distinguishing some kind of "elementary" constituents of a "<i>crustal storm</i>", which can be briefly called "<i>crustal substorms</i>". The concept of "<i>storm</i>" and "<i>substorm</i>" is a common logical aspect, which is shared by several phenomena, depending on their common intrinsic and primary logical properties that can be called <i>lognormality</i> and <i>fractality</i>. Compared to a "<i>crustal storm</i>", a "<i>crustal substorm</i>" is likely to be reckoned to some specific seismic event. Owing to brevity purposes, however, the discussion of "<i>substorms</i>" is given elsewhere. <br><br> AE is an effective tool for monitoring these phenomena, and other processes that are ongoing within the crust. Eventually they result to be precursors of some more or less violent earthquake. It should be stressed, however, that the target of AE monitoring is <i>diagnosing</i> the Earth's crust. In contrast, earthquake <i>prediction</i> implies a much different perspective, which makes sense only by means of more detailed multiparametric monitoring. An AE array can provide real physical information only about the processes that are objectively ongoing inside different and contiguous large slabs of the crust. The purpose is to monitor the stress propagation that crosses different regions, in order to envisage where and when it can eventually trigger a catastrophe of the system. The conclusion is that continental – or planetary – scale arrays of AE monitoring stations, which record a few different AE frequencies, appear to be the likely first step for diagnosing the evolution of local structures preceding an earthquake. On the other hand, as it is well known, the magnitude of the shock is to be related to the elastic energy stored in the focal volume, rather than to the trigger that starts it