CARD9 negatively regulates NLRP3-induced IL-1β production on Salmonella infection of macrophages.

Interleukin-1β (IL-1β) is a proinflammatory cytokine required for host control of bacterial infections, and its production must be tightly regulated to prevent excessive inflammation. Here we show that caspase recruitment domain-containing protein 9 (CARD9), a protein associated with induction of proinflammatory cytokines by fungi, has a negative role on IL-1β production during bacterial infection. Specifically, in response to activation of the nucleotide oligomerization domain receptor pyrin-domain containing protein 3 (NLRP3) by Salmonella infection, CARD9 negatively regulates IL-1β by fine-tuning pro-IL-1β expression, spleen tyrosine kinase (SYK)-mediated NLRP3 activation and repressing inflammasome-associated caspase-8 activity. CARD9 is suppressed during Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium infection, facilitating increased IL-1β production. CARD9 is, therefore, a central signalling hub that coordinates a pathogen-specific host inflammatory response.M.P. was supported by CAPES (Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior, Brazil). This work was supported by a grant from the BBSRC BB/K006436/1 and a Wellcome Trust Investigator award to CEB.This is the final version of the article. It first appeared from Nature Publishing Group via http://doi.org.10.1038/ncomms12874

Inflammasome activation causes dual recruitment of NLRC4 and NLRP3 to the same macromolecular complex.

Pathogen recognition by nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor (NLR) results in the formation of a macromolecular protein complex (inflammasome) that drives protective inflammatory responses in the host. It is thought that the number of inflammasome complexes forming in a cell is determined by the number of NLRs being activated, with each NLR initiating its own inflammasome assembly independent of one another; however, we show here that the important foodborne pathogen Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium) simultaneously activates at least two NLRs, whereas only a single inflammasome complex is formed in a macrophage. Both nucleotide-binding domain and leucine-rich repeat caspase recruitment domain 4 and nucleotide-binding domain and leucine-rich repeat pyrin domain 3 are simultaneously present in the same inflammasome, where both NLRs are required to drive IL-1β processing within the Salmonella-infected cell and to regulate the bacterial burden in mice. Superresolution imaging of Salmonella-infected macrophages revealed a macromolecular complex with an outer ring of apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a caspase activation and recruitment domain and an inner ring of NLRs, with active caspase effectors containing the pro-IL-1β substrate localized internal to the ring structure. Our data reveal the spatial localization of different components of the inflammasome and how different members of the NLR family cooperate to drive robust IL-1β processing during Salmonella infection.S.M.M was supported by a Cambridge International Scholarship. T.P.M was supported by a Wellcome Trust Research Career Development Fellowship (WT085090MA). This study was supported by Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC) grants (BB/H003916/1 and BB/K006436/1) and a BBSRC Research Development Fellowship (BB/H021930/1) awarded to C.E.B.http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2014/05/05/1402911111.abstrac

Succinate Dehydrogenase Supports Metabolic Repurposing of Mitochondria to Drive Inflammatory Macrophages.

Activated macrophages undergo metabolic reprogramming, which drives their pro-inflammatory phenotype, but the mechanistic basis for this remains obscure. Here, we demonstrate that upon lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation, macrophages shift from producing ATP by oxidative phosphorylation to glycolysis while also increasing succinate levels. We show that increased mitochondrial oxidation of succinate via succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) and an elevation of mitochondrial membrane potential combine to drive mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. RNA sequencing reveals that this combination induces a pro-inflammatory gene expression profile, while an inhibitor of succinate oxidation, dimethyl malonate (DMM), promotes an anti-inflammatory outcome. Blocking ROS production with rotenone by uncoupling mitochondria or by expressing the alternative oxidase (AOX) inhibits this inflammatory phenotype, with AOX protecting mice from LPS lethality. The metabolic alterations that occur upon activation of macrophages therefore repurpose mitochondria from ATP synthesis to ROS production in order to promote a pro-inflammatory state

Ulcerative colitis and irritable bowel patients exhibit distinct abnormalities of the gut microbiota

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Previous studies suggest a link between gut microbiota and the development of ulcerative colitis (UC) and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). Our aim was to investigate any quantitative differences in faecal bacterial compositions in UC and IBS patients compared to healthy controls, and to identify individual bacterial species that contribute to these differences.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>Faecal microbiota of 13 UC patients, 11 IBS patients and 22 healthy volunteers were analysed by PCR-Denaturing Gradient Gel Electrophoresis (DGGE) using universal and Bacteroides specific primers. The data obtained were normalized using in-house developed statistical method and interrogated by multivariate approaches. The differentiated bands were excised and identified by sequencing the V3 region of the 16S rRNA genes.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>Band profiles revealed that number of predominant faecal bacteria were significantly different between UC, IBS and control group (p < 10^-4). By assessing the mean band numbers in UC (37 ± 5) and IBS (39 ± 6), compared to the controls (45 ± 3), a significant decrease in bacterial species is suggested (p = 0.01). There were no significant differences between IBS and UC. Biodiversity of the bacterial species was significantly lower in UC (μ = 2.94, σ = 0.29) and IBS patients (μ = 2.90, σ = 0.38) than controls (μ = 3.25, σ = 0.16; p = 0.01). Moreover, similarity indices revealed greater biological variability of predominant bacteria in UC and IBS compared to the controls (median Dice coefficients 76.1% (IQR 70.9 - 83.1), 73.8% (IQR 67.0 - 77.5) and 82.9% (IQR 79.1 - 86.7) respectively). DNA sequencing of discriminating bands suggest that the presence of <it>Bacteroides vulgatus, B. ovatus, B. uniformis</it>, and <it>Parabacteroides sp</it>. in healthy volunteers distinguishes them from IBS and UC patients. DGGE profiles of Bacteroides species revealed a decrease of Bacteroides community in UC relative to IBS and controls.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>Molecular profiling of faecal bacteria revealed abnormalities of intestinal microbiota in UC and IBS patients, while different patterns of Bacteroides species loss in particular, were associated with UC and IBS.</p

Research data supporting “CARD9 negatively regulates NLRP3-induced IL-1b production upon Salmonella infection of macrophages”

Interleukin 1β (IL-1β) is a pro-inflammatory cytokine required for host control of bacterial infections, and its production must be tightly regulated to prevent excessive inflammation. Here we identify show a surprising negative regulatory role for caspase recruitment domain-containing protein 9 (CARD9), a protein associated with induction of pro-inflammatory cytokines by fungi, has a negative role on IL-1β production during bacterial infection. CARD9 negatively regulates IL-1β productionSpecifically, in response to activation of the nucleotide oligomerization domain receptor pyrin-domain containing protein 3 (NLRP3) by Salmonella infection, CARD9 negatively regulates IL-1β by fine-tuning pro-IL-1β expression, reducing SYK-mediated NLRP3 activation and repressing inflammasome inflammasome-associated caspase-8 activity. CARD9 is suppressed during Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium infection, facilitating increased IL-1β production. CARD9 is, therefore, a central signalling hub that co-ordinates a pathogen- specific host inflammatory response.BBSRC [BB/K006436/1], Wellcome Trust [Investigator 108045/Z/15/Z], CAPES (Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior, Brazil

Actin polymerization as a key innate immune effector mechanism to control Salmonella infection

Salmonellosis is one of the leading causes of food poisoning worldwide. Controlling bacterial burden is essential to surviving infection. Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptors (NLRs), such as NLRC4, induce inflammasome effector functions and play a crucial role in controlling Salmonella infection. Inflammasome-dependent production of IL-1 beta recruits additional immune cells to the site of infection, whereas inflammasome-mediated pyroptosis of macrophages releases bacteria for uptake by neutrophils. Neither of these functions is known to directly kill intracellular salmonellae within macrophages. The mechanism, therefore, governing how inflammasomes mediate intracellular bacterial-killing and clearance in host macrophages remains unknown. Here, we show that actin polymerization is required for NLRC4-dependent regulation of intracellular bacterial burden, inflammasome assembly, pyroptosis, and IL-1 beta production. NLRC4-induced changes in actin polymerization are physically manifested as increased cellular stiffness, and leads to reduced bacterial uptake, production of antimicrobial molecules, and arrested cellular migration. These processes act in concert to limit bacterial replication in the cell and dissemination in tissues. We show, therefore, a functional link between innate immunity and actin turnover in macrophages that underpins a key host defense mechanism for the control of salmonellosis

Detection of a microbial metabolite by STING regulates inflammasome activation in response to Chlamydia trachomatis infection

The innate immune system is a critical component of host defence against microbial pathogens, but effective responses require an ability to distinguish between infectious and non-infectious insult to prevent inappropriate inflammation. Using the important obligate intracellular human pathogen Chlamydia trachomatis; an organism that causes significant immunopathology, we sought to determine critical host and pathogen factors that contribute to the induction of inflammasome activation. We assayed inflammasome activation by immunoblotting and ELISA to detect IL-1β processing and LDH release to determine pyroptosis. Using primary murine bone marrow derived macrophages or human monocyte derived dendritic cells, infected with live or attenuated Chlamydia trachomatis we report that the live organism activates both canonical and non-canonical inflammasomes, but only canonical inflammasomes controlled IL-1β processing which preceded pyroptosis. NADPH oxidase deficient macrophages were permissive to Chlamydia trachomatis replication and displayed elevated type-1 interferon and inflammasome activation. Conversely, attenuated, non-replicating Chlamydia trachomatis, primed but did not activate inflammasomes and stimulated reduced type-1 interferon responses. This suggested bacterial replication or metabolism as important factors that determine interferon responses and inflammasome activation. We identified STING but not cGAS as a central mediator of interferon regulated inflammasome activation. Interestingly, exogenous delivery of a Chlamydia trachomatis metabolite and STING ligand-cyclic di-AMP, recovered inflammasome activation to attenuated bacteria in a STING dependent manner thus indicating that a bacterial metabolite is a key factor initiating inflammasome activation through STING, independent of cGAS. These data suggest a potential mechanism of how the innate immune system can distinguish between infectious and non-infectious insult and instigate appropriate immune responses that could be therapeutically targeted.This work was supported by a Medical Research Council grant (RG61445) to JCG and HJSG http://www.mrc.ac.uk/, an Arthritis Research UK Senior Fellowship (RG61798) grant to JCG http://www.arthritisresearchuk.org/, the National Institute for Health Research http://www.nihr.ac.uk/ Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre http://www.cambridge-brc.org.uk/ and Cambridge Arthritis Research Endeavour (CARE) http://www.cambridge-arthritis.org.uk/. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript

Inflammasome activation causes dual recruitment of NLRC4 and NLRP3 to the same macromolecular complex

Pathogen recognition by nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor (NLR) results in the formation of a macromolecular protein complex (inflammasome) that drives protective inflammatory responses in the host. It is thought that the number of inflammasome complexes forming in a cell is determined by the number of NLRs being activated, with each NLR initiating its own inflammasome assembly independent of one another; however, we show here that the important foodborne pathogen Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium) simultaneously activates at least two NLRs, whereas only a single inflammasome complex is formed in a macrophage. Both nucleotide-binding domain and leucine-rich repeat caspase recruitment domain 4 and nucleotide-binding domain and leucine-rich repeat pyrin domain 3 are simultaneously present in the same inflammasome, where both NLRs are required to drive IL-1β processing within the Salmonella-infected cell and to regulate the bacterial burden in mice. Superresolution imaging of Salmonella-infected macrophages revealed a macromolecular complex with an outer ring of apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a caspase activation and recruitment domain and an inner ring of NLRs, with active caspase effectors containing the pro–IL-1β substrate localized internal to the ring structure. Our data reveal the spatial localization of different components of the inflammasome and how different members of the NLR family cooperate to drive robust IL-1β processing during Salmonella infection

Evolutionary loss of inflammasomes in the Carnivora and implications for the carriage of zoonotic infections.

Zoonotic pathogens, such as COVID-19, reside in animal hosts before jumping species to infect humans. The Carnivora, like mink, carry many zoonoses, yet how diversity in host immune genes across species affect pathogen carriage is poorly understood. Here, we describe a progressive evolutionary downregulation of pathogen-sensing inflammasome pathways in Carnivora. This includes the loss of nucleotide-oligomerization domain leucine-rich repeat receptors (NLRs), acquisition of a unique caspase-1/-4 effector fusion protein that processes gasdermin D pore formation without inducing rapid lytic cell death, and the formation of a caspase-8 containing inflammasome that inefficiently processes interleukin-1β. Inflammasomes regulate gut immunity, but the carnivorous diet has antimicrobial properties that could compensate for the loss of these immune pathways. We speculate that the consequences of systemic inflammasome downregulation, however, can impair host sensing of specific pathogens such that they can reside undetected in the Carnivora

Prevention of the foreign body response to implantable medical devices by inflammasome inhibition.

SignificanceImplantable electronic medical devices (IEMDs) are used for some clinical applications, representing an exciting prospect for the transformative treatment of intractable conditions such Parkinson's disease, deafness, and paralysis. The use of IEMDs is limited at the moment because, over time, a foreign body reaction (FBR) develops at the device-neural interface such that ultimately the IEMD fails and needs to be removed. Here, we show that macrophage nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome activity drives the FBR in a nerve injury model yet integration of an NLRP3 inhibitor into the device prevents FBR while allowing full healing of damaged neural tissue to occur.Part of the RNA-Seq work was performed with the Genomics and Transcriptomics Core, which is funded by the UK Medical Research Council (MRC) Metabolic Disease Unit (MRC_MC_UU_00014/5) and a Wellcome Trust Major Award (208363/Z/17/Z), and guidance from Marcella Ma, whom the authors wish to thank. CEB was supported by a Wellcome Trust Investigator award (108045/Z/15/Z). This work was also supported by the UK Wellcome Trust (Translational Medicine and Therapeutics PhD Programme Fellowship 109511/Z/15/Z to DGB), the UK Health Education England and the National Institute for Health Research (HEE/ NIHR ICA Program Clinical Lectureship CL-2019-14-004 to DGB), the UK Medical Research Council (MRC) and the Sackler Foundation (doctoral training grant RG70550 to ACL), the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) Cambridge NanoDTC (EP/L015978/1), the Centre for Trophoblast Research (MP and RSH), the Whitaker International Scholars Program (ALR), the European Commission’s Horizon 2020 (Marie Sklodowska-Curie Fellowship 797506 to ALR), the Bertarelli Foundation (SPL), the European Research Council (Consolidator Award 772426 to KF), the UK Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (Research Grant BB/N006402/1 to KF), and the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation (Humboldt Professorship to KF)