Report on the evaluation of surveillance systems relevant to zoonotic diseases in Kenya, 2015: A basis for design of an integrated human–livestock surveillance system

The Zoonoses in Livestock in Kenya (ZooLinK) is a project that seeks to enable Kenya develop an effective surveillance programme for zoonotic diseases (infectious diseases transmissible between animals and human beings). The surveillance programme will be integrated across both human and animal health sectors. To achieve this goal the project will work in close collaboration with Kenyan government departments in responsible for animal and human health. As a prelude to the start of the project, an evaluation of the existing surveillance systems for human and animal health was carried out. The evaluation focused on the national surveillance system and the systems at the western part of Kenya (Busia county, Kakamega county and Bungoma county) where the initial programme will be developed. In conducting the evaluation the investigators used key informant interviews, focused group discussion participant questionnaires, audio recordings and observation for data collection. Data analysis for the qualitative data focused on generating themes or theory around the responses obtained in the key informants interviews and focused group discussions. Univariate analysis was performed by use of simple proportions in calculation for surveillance system attributes like sensitivity, completeness, PVP and Timeliness for the human health surveillance systems. The findings of the evaluation revealed that there was poor linkage between animal health surveillance and the human health surveillance systems. None of the systems had surveillance structures dedicated to zoonotic diseases. Most practitioners used clinical signs for diagnosis of diseases with little reference to acceptable case definitions. Laboratory diagnosis in animal health services focused more on suspected notifiable diseases as opposed to being a standard operating procedure for diagnosis. In Human health services the health care facilities that had laboratory within the facility conducted laboratory diagnosis for cases referred by the clinicians. However, some clinicians preferred using clinical signs for diagnosis to avoid the wait or turn-around time in the laboratory. For effective surveillance of zoonoses to be realized it would be advisable to establish surveillance structures specific to zoonoses and the necessary resources allocated to the surveillance activities. In addition, an integrated approach that incorporated both human and animal disease surveillance should be employed in the surveillance of zoonoses

Influence of helminth infection on vaginal immunity

Helminth infections induce systemic changes to host immunity and can impact unrelated infections, even those occurring at anatomical sites not normally colonised by the helminths. A few studies have shown that helminths can increase the risk of infection and pathology resulting from sexually transmitted viral infections in the female reproductive tract, however the evidence is limited and the scope of helminth infection on immunity and infection in the female reproductive tract has not been fully elucidated. In this thesis the impact of hookworm infection on immunity in the female reproductive tract and risk of Human Papillomavirus infection in humans was investigated. The influence of helminth infection on B and T cell responses in the female reproductive tract and how this impacts vaccine mediated responses to another viral infection of the female reproductive tract, Herpes Simplex Virus, Type 2 was also assessed in a mouse model. To determine the risk of Human Papillomavirus among hookworm infected participants, we compared the prevalence of Human Papillomavirus infection among hookworm infected and uninfected women. Hookworm infected women were two times more likely to be Human Papillomavirus positive than women with no hookworm infection. Furthermore, hookworm infection was positively associated with the intensity of Human Papillomavirus infection. To determine whether hookworm infection induced changes in vaginal immunity we employed multiplex assays to measure chemokine, cytokine and antibody levels in the vaginal flushes of our study participants. Hookworm infected women displayed an elevated mixed Type 1 (TNF-a, IL-2 and IL-12) and Type 2 (IL-4, IL-5, IL-13, eotaxin and elevated IgG4/ IgE ratio) immune response in the female reproductive tract in xvi comparison to uninfected women. Type 2 immunity was pronounced in hookworm and Human Papillomavirus co-infected women who maintained an elevated Type 2 signature (IL-4, IL-5, IL-13, eotaxin and elevated IgG4/ IgE ratio) and an increased Th2/Th1 ratio in comparison to uninfected women. We then investigated the impact of primary helminth infection on B and T cell immunity in the female reproductive tract using the mouse model of hookworm infection, Nippostrongylus brasiliensis. Nippostrongylus brasiliensis infection of wild type BALB/c mice resulted in increased B cells, IgG1+ B cells and IgG1+ follicular B cells as well as increased effector memory T cells and T follicular helper cells in iliac lymph nodes, which drain the female reproductive tract. We then infected wild type BALB/c mice with Nippostrongylus brasiliensis and immunised them with formalin inactivated Herpes Simplex Virus, Type 2 then challenged them intravaginally with lethal dose Herpes Simplex Virus, Type 2. Nippostrongylus brasiliensis infection did not significantly impact B cell responses to vaccination and subsequent challenge though there was a trend towards lower B cell responses in mice that received Nippostrongylus brasiliensis treatment prior to vaccination. Mice that had prior Nippostrongylus brasiliensis infection, however, had significantly lower effector memory CD4+ T cells than mice that did not have helminth infection before vaccination. In summary, this thesis demonstrates that helminth infection induces Type 2 associated immune changes in the female reproductive tract in humans and alters B and T cell populations in lymph nodes draining the female reproductive tract of mice. Furthermore, in humans, an increased risk of Human Papillomavirus infection and increased intensity of Human Papillomavirus infection was associated with hookworm infection. In mice, a dampening of Herpes Simplex Virus, Type 2 vaccine mediated xvii effector CD4 T cells responses and increased pathology following viral challenge was observed in mice previously infected with Nippostrongylus brasiliensis. The findings in this thesis highlight helminth infection as a significant risk factor for sexually transmitted viral infections and have implications for control of these infections among women living in helminth endemic areas

Cross-amplification and characterization of polymorphic microsatellite markers from Acacia (Senegalia) mellifera and Acacia brevispica to Acacia senegal (L.) Willd.

Seven polymorphic microsatellite markers isolated from Acacia brevispica and Acacia mellifera were successfully cross-amplified in Acacia senegal. The loci were surveyed for polymorphism using 30 samples. Allelic diversity ranged from 4 (Ame02, Ab06 and Ab18) to 13 (Ab26) per locus. The expected heterozygosity (HE) ranged from 0.543 (Ame02) to 0.868 (Ab26) while observed heterozygosity (HO) ranged from 0.516 (Ame05) to 0.800 (Ame03). Cross amplification of these loci represents a potential source of co-dominant marker and will be useful in the study of genetic diversity, structure, gene flow and breeding systems of this important Acacia species

OXIDATIVE STRESS AND REDOX PROTEOMICS STUDIES IN MODELS OF NEURODEGENERATIVE DISORDERS: I. THE CANINE MODEL OF HUMAN AGING; II. INSIGHTS INTO SUCCESSFUL AGING; AND III. TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY

The studies presented in this dissertation were conducted with the objective ofgaining greater understanding into the mechanisms of successful aging, the role ofmitochondria dysfunction in traumatic brain injury, and also on the mechanisms ofimproved learning and cognitive function in the aging.Aging is usually characterized by impairments in physiological functionsincreasing its susceptibility to dementia and neurodegenerative disorders. In thisdissertation, the mechanisms of dementia-free aging were investigated. The use of anantioxidant fortified diet and a program of behavioral enrichment in the canine model ofhuman aging was shown to result in a significant decrease in the levels of oxidativestress. A proteomic analysis of these brains also demonstrated a significant decrease inthe oxidative modification of key brain proteins and an increase in the expression levelsof other key brain proteins associated with energy metabolism and antioxidant systemswhich correlated with improved learning and memory.We show that following TBI key mitochondrial-related proteins undergoextensive oxidative modification, possibly contributing to the severe loss ofmitochondrial energetics and neuronal cell death previously observed in experimentalTBI.Taken together, these findings support the role of oxidative stress in thepathophysiology of aging and age-related neurodegenerative disorders and in CNS injury.These studies also show that antioxidants and a program of behavioral enrichmentprovide protection against oxidative stress-mediated cognitive impairments

Micronutrient deficiencies in African soils and the human nutritional nexus: opportunities with staple crops

A synthesis of available agronomic datasets and peer-reviewed scientific literature was conducted to: (1) assess the status of micronutrients in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) arable soils, (2) improve the understanding of the relations between soil quality/management and crop nutritional quality and (3) evaluate the potential profitability of application of secondary and micronutrients to key food crops in SSA, namely maize (Zea mays L.), beans (Phaseolus spp. and Vicia faba L.), wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and rice (Oryza sativa L.). We found that there is evidence of widespread but varying micronutrient deficiencies in SSA arable soils and that simultaneous deficiencies of multiple elements (co-occurrence) are prevalent. Zinc (Zn) predominates the list of micronutrients that are deficient in SSA arable soils. Boron (B), iron (Fe), molybdenum (Mo) and copper (Cu) deficiencies are also common. Micronutrient fertilization/agronomic biofortification increases micronutrient concentrations in edible plant organs, and it was profitable to apply fertilizers containing micronutrient elements in 60–80% of the cases. However, both the plant nutritional quality and profit had large variations. Possible causes of this variation may be differences in crop species and cultivars, fertilizer type and application methods, climate and initial soil conditions, and soil chemistry effects on nutrient availability for crop uptake. Therefore, micronutrient use efficiency can be improved by adapting the rates and types of fertilizers to site-specific soil and management conditions. To make region-wide nutritional changes using agronomic biofortification, major policy interventions are needed

A TRADE/HUMAN RIGHTS LINKAGE BY THE UNITED STATES: IS ENFORCING HUMAN RIGHTS BY USE OF TRADE SANCTIONS EFFECTIVE?

Universally held basic human rights must remain separate from political rights. Such basic human rights are those that are so universal that all societies, systems, nations, and ideology could, and do espouse them. Conversely, political rights are those that are dependent upon compatibility with the system of government in place and arc therefore far less likely to gamer universal support. An effective multilateral enforcement mechanism can only succeed if there are universal agreement and acceptance of the protected rights. Accordingly, at the outset of such a mechanism, only basic human rights may be enforced through trade sanctions. Once such a system is in place, more political rights may be included. In chapter II of this thesis, the author discusses a brief history of the international enforcement of human rights. Providing a brief description of human rights, which are universal in nature and therefore capable of garnering international adherence and discusses the current method of protection of human rights, specifically international and regional conventions. Chapter III examines the WTO dispute settlement system applied to conflicts involving trade-human rights conflicts and the basis of including human rights trade sanctions in the WTO. Chapter IV examines the unilateral trade sanctions by the United States, whether Federal, state or local. These sanctions are used as a weapon of choice to enforce U.S. foreign policy goals. Some of the sanctions, however, attempt to impose sanctions on third-party countries that choose to trade with target nations. Several nations have retaliated against these sanctions by enacting blocking laws that prevent their citizens and corporations from complying with the provisions of the U.S. sanctions, and penalizing them if they do comply. Chapter V examines the effectiveness of trade sanctions and identifies some instances, particularly involving small target countries and modest policy goals, where sanctions have helped alter foreign behavior. The final chapter examines the possible ways in which trade sanctions can be used in an effective way to enforce human rights

Effects of Financial Statement on the Performance and Growth of SME’s: A Survey of SME’s in Eldoret Langas Area

The study investigates the effects of financial management statements on performance and sustainable growth of SME’s. It engaged a robust OLS econometric model to empirically analyze performance levels alongside the determining variables in this case the profit loss, incomplete records and balance sheet being the main explanatory variables. The findings revealed that performance of SME’s is significantly pegged on decisions based on the statements since, entrepreneurs who registered high profit levels, appreciated the positive and significant contribution of profit loss, incomplete records and the Balance sheet. However, entrepreneurs who registered Average, Low and Breakeven profit levels attributed the negatively significant and reversal effect of financial statement on the undesirable profitability rating. In addition, higher education level seemed to have had an insignificant impact on improving performance level but rather, a neutralization effect of sustaining the prevailing performance level from deteriorating. Hence, without an appropriate adoption of these statements in accordance with the business management ethics, growth and subsequent progress of SME’s in this region remains stifled at the start-up and Life-style development stages prescribed in the enterprise life-cycle model. Keywords: Growth, SME’s, Profitability, Financial Statemen

Impact assessment on the farmers milk marketing plants : a case of Ol'kalou Dairy Ltd

Generally, it is accepted that impact assessment is a critical element in further improving community development initiatives and promoting intervention. Also existing impact assessments have made an important contribution to understanding some of the complex interactions between community development interventions, livelihoods and different dimensions of poverty reduction and empowerment (Linda Myoux, 2003). This research project on the social-economic impact of farmers' milk marketing plants in OPkalou Division, Nyandarua District was conducted in the month of March 2007. The main aim of the research was to determine the effectiveness of collective marketing initiatives of the farmers, in partnership with Heifer International - Kenya. The results were envisaged to enhance the collaboration of farmers and Heifer International in its bid to achieve its vision of poverty alleviation and improving nutrition. The study was done for the purpose of examining how collective marketing though the establishment of a milk marketing plant has impacted on the smallholder dairy farmer, effect on their livelihoods and addresses the challenges that are being experienced so as to make recommendations on the way forward in replication of such projects. The study also intended to establish the employment created through direct involvement in milk production and through several support services tied to dairy production. By using questionnaires, interviews and observation 156 respondents were contacted and the data revealed that collective marketing of milk products has greatly benefited the farmers who now, no longer experience serious price fluctuation and inability to sell their produce. This initiative has also rejuvenated their participation in milk production to earn higher incomes to better their lives as most of the earnings from milk sales is used for daily sustenance. The buyers also appreciated such arrangement as it led to a reduction in their costs because they would find the produce ready in bulk unlike if they had to go collecting it all over the locations. However it has been learnt that, a lot more needs to be done to create a buy in to many more farmers so that they would enjoy the economies of scale. Community mobilization in this respect is important for the success of such initiatives. Also to be included in the programs is access to credit to enable the farmers re-stocking their lost herd. The establishment of milk marketing plants has therefore, provided the farmers opportunity to sell their milk, participate in the management of the plant and create window for sustainable rural development. (Author abstract)Otieno, S. O. (2007). Impact assessment on the farmers milk marketing plants: a case of Ol'kalou Dairy Ltd. Retrieved from http://academicarchive.snhu.eduMaster of Science (M.S.)School of Community Economic Developmen