Provider experiences and opinions on counseling adolescents undergoing voluntary medical male circumcision in western Kenya

Objectives: Voluntary medical male circumcision (VMMC) remains an important component of comprehensive HIV prevention package. Kenya and other key countries are focusing increased attention on achieving large proportions of adolescent circumcisions. Because little is known about the impact of adolescent VMMC counseling, we sought to capture the experiences and opinions of VMMC providers regarding effective adolescent VMMC counseling.Design and Setting: We purposively selected six VMMC sites: three each in Siaya and Kisumu Counties. From each site, we administered key informant interviews to two VMMC providers at a place of their choice for privacy and confidentiality. Outcomes of the study were participant responses to questions regarding their adolescent counseling practices, prior training, and opinions for improvement of counseling practices.Results: Three providers (25%) reported having been trained on adolescent-specific VMMC counseling. Compared to adults, adolescents receive less information during VMMC counseling. There was lack of consistency in counseling procedures, with counselors making subjective judgments as to what content to include, depending on their perception of the sexual experience of the client. Providers recommended greater engagement of parents in the VMMC process, limiting numbers of clients per day to ensure quality of counseling, and allocation of space to facilitate confidentiality.Conclusions: All providers counseling adolescent VMMC clients should receive adolescent-specific counseling training, and adhere to national VMMC guidelines. Measures to assure confidentiality should be taken, and numbers of clients per day limited to ensure quality of counseling services

Cassava chips quality as influenced by cultivar, blanching time and slice thickness

Cassava forms part of diets in Kenya with both the roots and leaves being consumed as food. The short shelf-life of 72 hours and cyanogenic glucosides limit the extent of utilization. Currently, fried cassava chips and crisps are increasingly being consumed as snacks; and fried cassava chips are produced by street processors. The quality and safety of these products is not known, therefore, the current study was to establish the influence of cassava cultivar, blanching time and slice thickness on quality of fried cassava chips. Moisture, vitamin C and cyanide content in the raw cassava cultivars were determined before processing. The three raw cassava cultivars coded as MH95/0183, MM96/2480 and Fumba chai were washed, peeled and sliced into thickness of 6 mm, 10 mm and 20 mm. Equal groups of the slices were blanched at 950C for 0 minutes, 5 minutes and 10 minutes each and then subjected to frying temperature of 1700C. The physico-chemical and sensory properties of fried cassava chips were determined. Dry matter content, vitamin C content and cyanide levels significantly (p < 0.05) differed among the three raw cultivars except in MH95/0183 and MM96/2480. A strong positive relationship (r = 0.98) existed between moisture and cyanide contents in the raw cultivars. Mean cyanide levels in the three roots was: 37.04 mg/kg, 16.37 mg/kg and 48.48 mg/kg in MH95/0183, MM96/2480 and Fumba chai, respectively. Dry matter content was 36.79 %, 37.69 % and 30.42 % in MH95/0183, MM96/2480 and Fumba chai. The physico-chemical and sensory properties significantly (p < 0.05) differed within and across the cultivars as affected by processing conditions. Mean cyanide range was 1.4 - 11 mg/kg, oil content ranged 3.78 - 18.48 % and vitamin C content ranged 7.59 - 50.48 mg/100 g. Significant (p < 0.05) relationship (r = 0.707) existed between slice thickness and the redness color parameter. Cultivar, slice thickness and blanching time form important yardsticks in processing fried cassava chips. Proper choice of these parameters is, therefore, important in processing quality and safe cassava fries. Slice thickness of 6 mm combined with long blanching time of 10 minutes result in fried cassava chips with low and acceptable cyanide content as well as satisfactory consumer preference based on color, texture, oiliness and overall acceptability.Key words: cyanide, quality, cassava, slice thickness, cultivar, blanching, consumer preferenc

THE PRAXIS OF CHINA-SUDAN BILATERAL ECONOMIC RELATIONS

ABSTRACT The Sudanese oil diplomacy, which has been a major determinant of Sudan's economic conduct, has been greatly influenced by the praxis of China-Sudan bilateral economic relations for three reasons. First, China-Sudan bilateral relations have remained relatively stable since 1959 even in the face of drastic changes in the political environment, second, China developed Sudan's oil industry and changed Sudan into a net oil exporter, and third, China became the main importer of Sudan's oil, taking up to 70% of Sudan's oil production which provided China with about 6% of its energy needs at home. The objective of the study was to explore the praxis of China-Sudan bilateral economic relations influencing Sudanese oil diplomacy. The respondents in the study were officials from Kenyan Ministry of Foreign Affairs China's Embassy in Kenya, Sudan's Embassy in Kenya, South Sudan's Embassy in Kenya, Students at Pwani University of Mombasa, University of Nairobi's Institute of Diplomacy and International Studies, Confucian centre at Nairobi University and students at Maseno University. The study relied more on qualitative analysis, but quantitative analysis was also used. Qualitative data were analyzed using qualitative analysis methods while quantitative data collected in the field were analyzed using descriptive statistics in form of histograms and pie charts and inferential statistics. Probability sampling method used was simple random while non-probability sampling methods used were convenience, purposive and snowball sampling methods. Simple random was used to get information from university students while purposive sampling was used to get information from respondents with special knowledge on the subject. Both primary and secondary data were collected. The collection methods included key informant interviews, questionnaires with closed and open-ended questions, library research and content analysis. Likert scales were used to capture respondents' attitudes toward, and level of agreement on, various related issues. Data were presented in histograms and pie-charts and later interpreted into meaningful information

Cytokine expression in malaria-infected non-human primate placentas

Malaria parasites are known to mediate the induction of inflammatory immune responses at the maternal-foetal interface during placental malaria (PM) leading to adverse consequences like pre-term deliveries and abortions. Immunological events that take place within the malaria-infected placental micro-environment leading to retarded foetal growth and disruption of pregnancies are among the critical parameters that are still in need of further elucidation. The establishment of more animal models for studying placental malaria can provide novel ways of circumventing problems experienced during placental malaria research in humans such as inaccurate estimation of gestational ages. Using the newly established olive baboon (Papio anubis)-Plasmodium knowlesi (P. knowlesi) H strain model of placental malaria, experiments were carried out to determine placental cytokine profiles underlying the immunopathogenesis of placental malaria. Four pregnant olive baboons were infected with blood stage P. knowlesi H strain parasites on the one fiftieth day of gestation while four other uninfected pregnant olive baboons were maintained as uninfected controls. After nine days of infection, placentas were extracted from all the eight baboons through cesarean surgery and used for the processing of placental plasma and sera samples for cytokine sandwich enzyme linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA). Results indicated that the occurrence of placental malaria was associated with elevated concentrations of tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-{\alpha}) and interleukin 12 (IL-12). Increased levels of IL-4, IL-6 and IL-10 and interferon gamma (IFN-{\gamma}) levels were detected in uninfected placentas. These findings match previous reports regarding immunity during PM thereby demonstrating the reliability of the olive baboon-P. knowlesi model for use in further studies.Comment: Open Veterinary Journal 1st June 2012. Seven pages, Three Figures. arXiv admin note: text overlap with arXiv:1201.323

Rhizobia contribute to salinity tolerance in common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)

Rhizobia are soil bacteria that induce nodule formation on leguminous plants. In the nodules, they reduce dinitrogen to ammonium that can be utilized by plants. Besides nitrogen fixation, rhizobia have other symbiotic functions in plants including phosphorus and iron mobilization and protection of the plants against various abiotic stresses including salinity. Worldwide, about 20% of cultivable and 33% of irrigation land is saline, and it is estimated that around 50% of the arable land will be saline by 2050. Salinity inhibits plant growth and development, results in senescence, and ultimately plant death. The purpose of this study was to investigate how rhizobia, isolated from Kenyan soils, relieve common beans from salinity stress. The yield loss of common bean plants, which were either not inoculated or inoculated with the commercial R. tropici rhizobia CIAT899 was reduced by 73% when the plants were exposed to 300 mM NaCl, while only 60% yield loss was observed after inoculation with a novel indigenous isolate from Kenyan soil, named S3. Expression profiles showed that genes involved in the transport of mineral ions (such as K+, Ca2+, Fe3+, PO43−, and NO3−) to the host plant, and for the synthesis and transport of osmotolerance molecules (soluble carbohydrates, amino acids, and nucleotides) are highly expressed in S3 bacteroids during salt stress than in the controls. Furthermore, genes for the synthesis and transport of glutathione and γ-aminobutyric acid were upregulated in salt-stressed and S3-inocculated common bean plants. We conclude that microbial osmolytes, mineral ions, and antioxidant molecules from rhizobia enhance salt tolerance in common beans

Factors Associated with Choice of Infant Feeding Practices among HIV-1 Positive Post-natal Clinic Attendees in Tharaka Nithi County

Background: Feeding practices for HIV-exposed infants plays a key role in determining the risk of morbidity and mortality. Infected mothers’ choice of infant feeding is influenced by many factors within the community hence challenging their decisions. We sought to determine factors associated with choice of HIV exposed infant feeding practices in the region. Methods: Two hundred and forty nine HIV infected mothers were systematically recruited.  Data on infant HIV status was obtained from facility records. Respondents were interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire. Focus group discussions and key informant interviews were carried out to support primary data. Analysis was done using SPSS version 16.0. Logistic regression was used to determine association of factors that influenced choice of infant feeding practice. Results: Of the 249 respondents, 98% chose exclusively breastfeeding during prenatal counseling but majority did not sustain beyond 2 months, while replacement feeding was least practiced (2%) postnatal. Major factors that influenced feeding practices were mother’s education (OR 2.637; CI: 1.088-6.388), non-health care workers advise (OR 3.053; CI: 1.706-5.463), not belonging to support groups (OR 2.804; CI: 1.620-4.854) rejection of health care workers support (OR 3.386; CI: 1.937-5.919). Conclusion: Although exclusive breastfeeding was the preferred feeding choice among the respondents immediately after birth, it was not sustained beyond the second month of the infant’s life. Increased contact of HIV positive women with health care workers and professionals through promotion of trust in community health workers, attendance of ANC and delivery in hospital should be promoted.  Education efforts should also target non health care persons who influence feeding practices to reduce stigma among HIV positive mothers. Keywords:  Infant feeding practices; Stigm