Idealized Influence and Implementation of Human Resource Management Policies by Kakamega County Government, Kenya

Implementation of Human Resource Management policies by governments in developing countries has not translated into development and quality service delivery. Leadership is integral to achieving government goals. This study aimed to establish the influence of idealized influence on implementation of Human Resource Management policies by County Government of Kakamega. A descriptive research design and sample survey method involving use of questionnaire as the primary data collection instrument was adopted. The study population was 6,328 County Government of Kakamega employees. Simple random sampling technique was applied to get a sample size of 165 respondents with a pilot study being conducted in Bungoma County where the study checked for internal consistency and reliability of the instrument for data collection. Cronbach’s coefficient alpha of 0.867 was obtained for internal reliability. Ethics governing research were accorded utmost consideration. A 92.7% return rate was attained, good for social statistics analysis. The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to analyze data in the study. Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient and linear regression were used in analysis within 95% confidence interval to test for associations, relationships and independence of indicators. Study findings revealed a significant and positive relationship between idealized influence and implementation of Human Resource Management Policies. Study findings were in agreement with empirical evidence from previous studies on how idealized influence affected implementation of Human Resource Management Policies, particularly in public organizations. Keywords: Idealized Influence, Implementation, Human Resource Management Policies DOI: 10.7176/PPAR/11-4-03 Publication date:May 31st 202

Intrastate Conflicts Influencing Human Rights Enforcement with Specific Reference to the Republic of Sudan, 1956 – 2011

The objective of this paper was to Asses strategies for managing intrastate conflicts and mitigating human rights violation in the Republic of Sudan. The study design adopted was descriptive research that incorporated both, document analysis, quantitative and qualitative techniques. The findings showed that ahigh proportion (77%) of the respondents rated CPA’s contribution as a peace initiative to Republic of Sudan’s internal conflicts as average and above. The findings further revealed that the CPA’s contribution towards Republic of Sudan’s internal conflict had a significant effect on human right enforcement in Republic of Sudan. CPA and Referendum are the most popular peace initiatives in Republic of Sudan that has led to reduction of internal conflicts in Sudan.  According to the findings of this study. Not all peace initiatives were successfully in contributing significantly positive to resolving conflicts in the republic of Sudan. Initiatives such as ACPP and referendum did not significantly contribute to resolving conflicts according to the findings. The findings further revealed that strategies that were used to manage internal conflicts in Republic of Sudan were not successfull to some extent. More than half (61.7%) of respondents perceived that the strategies did less in uniting people of Southern Sudan. This is indicated by the current situation in South Sudan even after the secession; the intrastate conflicts have continued in South Sudan over resources and political interests. However, most strategies had positive influence on human rights enforcement in Republic of Sudan.   However, there were many (61.3%) respondents who agreed that the strategies speeded the secession of Republic of Sudan and contributed to peace in Republic of Sudan. On the other hand the results showed that these strategies were significant towards human rights enforcement in Republic of Sudan through; preventing further conflicts in Republic of Sudan, leading to stability in Republic of Sudan, making Republic of Sudan be accepted by international community, positively influenced North, South Sudan relationships, reduced intrastate conflicts in Republic of Sudan, contributed to peace in Republic of Sudan among others. However, the strategies at the time were far from reaching a satisfactorily level. The study concluded that the strategies that were in place did not work out well to a sustainable course.  The need for cooperative engagement comes from the conviction that no single association or entity that has the capacity of managing intrastate conflicts by itself. The study recommended that there is need for sober approaches to getting lasting solutions that could see conflicts reduction in Republic of Sudan. As per the findings an incredible need to deal with the root causes of conflicts and find the amicable solutions after the war is inevitable. Keywords: Armed Conflict, Civil War, Intrastate Conflicts, Human Rights Enforcemen

Physico-chemical Characteristics of Refined Lake Victoria Nile Perch (Lates niloticus) Viscera Oil

Nile perch viscera oil was characterized in terms of its physico-chemical properties. The crude oil was refined by neutralization, deodorization and winterization to obtain low melting point (LMP) and the high melting point (HMP) fractions. The oil fractions were analyzed for omega – 3 fatty acids (eicosapentaenoic acid – EPA and docosahexaenoic – DHA), vitamin A, vitamin E, iodine value (IV), saponification value (SV), density, melting point (MP), and smoke point (SP). Crude was used as control. Data were analysed (p £ 0.05) using GenStat software. The yield of winterized oil (LMP) was 39.8 ± 0.5% of crude and 19.6 ± 0.5% of raw material weight. There were no significant differences in density and vitamin E (tocopherol) content of the three fractions, while there were significant differences in the slip MP, SP, SV, IV and vitamin A (retinol) content. There were also significant differences in EPA and DHA contents. EPA and DHA for the LMP were highest, followed by crude and HMP having lowest. High vitamins A and E as well as omega – 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (ω – 3 PUFA) contents and high SP make the crude and HMP fractions suitable for use in cooking. The high amount of LMP fraction has high content of ω – 3 PUFA, making it suitable for use in food, feed and nutraceutics. Keywords: Nile perch; viscera; wet rendering; refining; physico-chemical characteristic

Comparison Between Economic Factors Influencing Development in the Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN) Regional Bloc and the East African Community (EAC)

Regionalism in Africa has been pursued to foster economic growth and outgrowth. Despite the numerous efforts towards economic integration by the East African regional states, success has been limited. There is no comprehensive integration policy to cement the East African regional states. Although several authors have examined the influence of regionalism from various perspectives and regions, they have not addressed the EAC and the ASEAN in a comparative context. This knowledge gap motivated the current study whose specific objective was to assess the economic factors which influence development in the EAC and the ASEAN regional blocs. The study was guided by the Power Theories. It employed the concurrent mixed methods approach, incorporating the survey design for the quantitative component, and the exploratory design for the qualitative component. The study used both purposive and stratified random sampling to select respondents from members of the EAC Secretariat, delegates attending various EAC council and summit meetings, ASEAN diplomatic representatives within the EAC Partner States and officers from the Ministries of East African Community and Foreign Affairs. The study utilized primary data collected using questionnaires and  interview guides.. The study established that The EAC member states have embraced similar policies on human development, social benefit and protection, across the region. The results of this study have demonstrated that, despite the numerous efforts of advancing economic integration by the East African regional states, real, tangible success is still an illusion. Pragmatic realization of mutual political trust needs to be embraced if the goal of economic integration is to be realized. The study recommends the development of a legislative and economic framework (laws, policies and guidelines) for Community Development within partner states as well as harmonization of democratization policies, processes and practices. Keywords: Economic Integration, Regionalism, Functionalism, Neo-functionalism

Quality Assurance for Occupational Health and Safety Administration (OSHA) In the Morgue: The Impact of SOP Domestication on Implementation and Practice of Universal Safety Precautions in Kenya

The growing need for mortuary services in sub-Saharan Africa amid competing priorities poses occupational health and Safety (OHS) challenges to industry stakeholders.  OHS Administration (OSHA) in the healthcare sector in sub-Saharan Africa has not only been overlooked on the assumption that the sector is a ‘safe zone’ given that “health” is its core mandate, but morgues have been sidelined in resource allocation losing out to presumed priority areas like maternal and child health. Quality implementation of universal safety precautions is however critical in such risky work environments as the morgues. While deliberate morgue safety quality assurance (QA) efforts have been made, emerging data raises an alarm.  In over 2.3 million fatalities reported annually in hospital environment related accidents and diseases, morgues are a contributor.  However there is lack of information on OHS exposures among mortuary workers in the light of rapid expansions.  This study investigated the quality assurance for OSHA in morgues specifically the impact of standard operating procedures (SOP) domestication on practice of universal safety precautions in government mortuaries in Kenya. This was a cross-sectional survey targeting a saturated sample of 39 facilities out of a population of 97 randomly sampled from 3,448 government health facilities.  A research model instrument, the Morgue OHS-Hazard Identification Risk Assessment and Control (HIRAC) survey comprising 30 variables developed from the principles of universal mortuary safety precautions was used to collect data.  100% (39) response rate was achieved.  The tool tested the presence and implementation of the universal precautions in a scale of 1-5 and the variables used for stratification to identify factors that correlate with major constructs and relationships between factors determined by Spearman’s rank correlation analyses.  The result shows cases of “Universal Precautions fully in Place” at 9.8%, “Universal Precautions Partially (Certain Elements) in Place” 27.8%, while cases of “No Universal Precautions in Place” at 62.4%.  In addition, a correlation was observed between the presence of SOPs and the practice of universal precautions in the morgues (P£0.05).  Regression analysis revealed approximately 70% (r=0.7) of variance in presence of SOPs as the determinant factor and the practice of individual elements of universal precautions namely; staff protection through vaccination (P=0.502**) Appropriate ventilation systems (P=0.535**) provision of appropriate equipment e.g. power-saws (P=0.658**); Use of additional PPE when gross contamination is anticipated (P=0.664**) and Respiratory protection measures at (P=0.726**) among others. This study confirms an empirical relationship between SOP domestication and the practice of universal precautions in government owned morgues in Kenya. Results show that morgues which had SOPs were largely compliant with universal safety precautions as opposed to those without SOPs.  The findings are significant in improving quality assurance for OHSA in the mortuaries and healthcare sector in Kenya. Keywords: Practice, Occupational Safety and Health (OHS), Universal Precautions, Mortuary/Morgue, Workers, Public Health Facilities

Comparative description of land use and characteristics of belowground biodiversity benchmark sites in Kenya = Descripción comparativa de usos del suelo y características de la diversidad del subsuelo en sitios empleados como referencia en Kenia

In Kenya, the below-ground biodiversity (BGBD) project selected two benchmark sites for the inventory of soil biota; these included the Irangi and Ngangao forest sites in the Mount Kenya region of Embu District and the Taita Hills area of Taita Taveta District. The areas selected by the project were located in biodiversity hotspots that are supporting rare and endemic plant and animal species. For more in-depth studies and analysis, the broader Embu and Taita benchmark areas were further sub-sampled into smaller areas that we refer to as study areas, designated by the symbols E1 and E2 for Embu and T1 and T2 for Taita benchmark. Within the study areas, we plotted and sampled 200x200 square grids for collecting soil as well as socio-economic data. Site characterization was carried out using the method provided by FAO-UNESCO for characterizing and classifying soils. Further to this, attempts were made to establish land use intensity (LUI) and land productivity (PI) indices that provided land condition indicators. The indicators offered insights into the quantitative relationship between the environmental conditions and land use. Parameters used in the computation of the land use intensity were; total quantity of inputs per ha, the frequency of input application, cropping intensity and cultivation frequency. The soils in Taita Taveta benchmark site were classified as Plinthic Lixisols, Plinthic Acrisols, Dystric Cambisols and Chromic Luvisols, while those from Embu ones were Rhodic Nitisols, Humic Nitisols, Humic Acrisols, Haplic Acrisols and Umbric Andosols. The highest level of soil organic carbon recorded was 7.6% in the forest and the lowest value of 1.6% in intensely cultivated maize-based and horticultural systems. Low land use intensity gradients were observed in the forests (LUI40%). The productivity index (PI) followed a similar trend, being highest in the natural forest and grassland (40-50%) and lowest in horticultural and maize-based systems (15-20%) It was concluded that the decline in soil quality and productivity was linked to increased land use intensification and lack of knowledge of the appropriate management practices for sustainable ecosystem functions and services

E. coli and Salmonella Contamination of Tomato Marketed and Consumed in Nairobi Metropolis

Tomato, a worldwide consumed commodity for its nutritive values can harbour Salmonella and E.coli. Tomato can contribute to diarrheal illnesses; and associated burden in households. Seasonal bacterial analyses to detect enterobacteria were conducted from January to June 2017 in Nairobi. The study shows that, the vegetable during the study period is 94% contaminated with E. coli and 28% with Salmonella. February had the highest contamination during the dry season (2.37 log10cfu.ml-1 >2; p≤ 0.05) and May (2.8 log10cfu.ml-1 >2; p≤ 0.05) the highest in wet season. Thus, seasons have influence on microbial contamination in tomato. Bacteria multiplication slows in dry period and increases in wet season. Increase of bacteria from March (end of dry season or beginning of rains) to high presence in May (end of rains) might come with more health concerns if attention is not paid to ready-to-eat vegetables. Consumers purchasing from open air markets seem more at risk of bacterial infection (Kangemi 1.84±0.159; Githurai 2.02±0.1815; Wakulima 1.97±0.24 of E. coli contamination) compared to those who use supermarkets (Nakumatt W. 1.54±0.134; Uchumi Sarit C. 1.27±0.105). Although most tomatoes were washed and cleaned, bacteria levels were still a threat to health. Surfactants from pesticides might contribute to tomatoes infection as they are able to wound skins of crops and open ways to bacterial contamination. With sudden bacterial increase in wet seasons (Kangemi 2.98±0.225kl; Githurai 2.75±0.157efghi; Wakulima 2.69±0.067ghijk; Nakumatt 1.78±0.092bcd; Uchumi 1.54±0.215cde), consumers might experience more symptoms of enteric bacteria. Special attention should be paid in wet times as best quality of tomato at sight is not necessarily safe for direct consumption without further processing. These findings might help in understanding why consumers of salad might be exposed to symptoms of enteric bacteria in wet times. Food handlers, health workers, consumers and policy designers should be informed of this risk. Keywords: E. coli, Salmonella spp, bacteria, season, contaminatio

Factors Associated with Choice of Infant Feeding Practices among HIV-1 Positive Post-natal Clinic Attendees in Tharaka Nithi County

Background: Feeding practices for HIV-exposed infants plays a key role in determining the risk of morbidity and mortality. Infected mothers’ choice of infant feeding is influenced by many factors within the community hence challenging their decisions. We sought to determine factors associated with choice of HIV exposed infant feeding practices in the region. Methods: Two hundred and forty nine HIV infected mothers were systematically recruited.  Data on infant HIV status was obtained from facility records. Respondents were interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire. Focus group discussions and key informant interviews were carried out to support primary data. Analysis was done using SPSS version 16.0. Logistic regression was used to determine association of factors that influenced choice of infant feeding practice. Results: Of the 249 respondents, 98% chose exclusively breastfeeding during prenatal counseling but majority did not sustain beyond 2 months, while replacement feeding was least practiced (2%) postnatal. Major factors that influenced feeding practices were mother’s education (OR 2.637; CI: 1.088-6.388), non-health care workers advise (OR 3.053; CI: 1.706-5.463), not belonging to support groups (OR 2.804; CI: 1.620-4.854) rejection of health care workers support (OR 3.386; CI: 1.937-5.919). Conclusion: Although exclusive breastfeeding was the preferred feeding choice among the respondents immediately after birth, it was not sustained beyond the second month of the infant’s life. Increased contact of HIV positive women with health care workers and professionals through promotion of trust in community health workers, attendance of ANC and delivery in hospital should be promoted.  Education efforts should also target non health care persons who influence feeding practices to reduce stigma among HIV positive mothers. Keywords:  Infant feeding practices; Stigm

The effect of participant nonresponse on HIV prevalence estimates in a population-based survey in two informal settlements in Nairobi city

BACKGROUND: Participant nonresponse in an HIV serosurvey can affect estimates of HIV prevalence. Nonresponse can arise from a participant's refusal to provide a blood sample or the failure to trace a sampled individual. In a serosurvey conducted by the African Population and Health Research Center and Kenya Medical Research Centre in the slums of Nairobi, 43% of sampled individuals did not provide a blood sample. This paper describes selective participation in the serosurvey and estimates bias in HIV prevalence figures. METHODS: The paper uses data derived from an HIV serosurvey nested in an on-going demographic surveillance system. Nonresponse was assessed using logistic regression and multiple imputation methods to impute missing data for HIV status using a set of common variables available for all sampled participants. RESULTS: Age, residence, high mobility, wealth, and ethnicity were independent predictors of a sampled individual not being contacted. Individuals aged 30-34 years, females, individuals from the Kikuyu and Kamba ethnicity, married participants, and residents of Viwandani were all less likely to accept HIV testing when contacted. Although men were less likely to be contacted, those found were more willing to be tested compared to females. The overall observed HIV prevalence was overestimated by 2%. The observed prevalence for male participants was underestimated by about 1% and that for females was overestimated by 3%. These differences were small and did not affect the overall estimate substantially as the observed estimates fell within the confidence limits of the corrected prevalence estimate. CONCLUSIONS: Nonresponse in the HIV serosurvey in the two informal settlements was high, however, the effect on overall prevalence estimate was minimal

Prevalence of Hepatitis C Virus and its genotypes among a cohort of drug users in Kenya

Background: Prevalence of hepatitis C virus and that of its main genotypes varies between the worlds geographic regions. The risk factors for infection with HCV include blood transfusion, tattoing and injecting drug use. Objectives: To examine the prevalence of HCV and determine its main genotypes among a cohort of drug users in Kenya. Design: A laboratory based study. Setting: Hepatitis research laboratory in the Centre for Virus Research at the Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi. Subjects: Three hundred and fourteen male and 19 female intravenous and non-intravenous drug users aged between 15-55 years. Results: Seventy four (22.2%) out of 333 samples tested positive for anti-HCV. Sixty nine out of the 74 serum samples were assayed for HCV RNA and 38 (55.5%) were positive. The RNA positive samples were further subjected to sequencing and 19 (73%) of the samples were classified as genotype la, while seven (27%) samples were classified as genotype 4. Genotypes 2, 3, 5 and 6 were not identified in this study. Conclusions: These results demonstrate a high HCV infection prevalence among this cohort of drug users (22.2 %) as compared to that of the general population, which is estimated to be 0.2- 0.9%. The study also confirms the presence of at least two major genotypes among Kenyan drug users (genotypes 1 and 4). East African Medical Journal Vol. 85 (7) 2008: pp. 318-32