Survey of postharvest handling, preservation and processing practices along the camel milk chain in Isiolo district, Kenya

Despite the important contribution of camel milk to food security for pastoralists in Kenya, little is known about the postharvest handling, preservation and processing practices. In this study, existing postharvest handling, preservation and processing practices for camel milk by pastoralists in Isiolo, Kenya were assessed through crosssectionalsurvey and focus group discussions. A total of 167 camel milk producerhouseholds, 50 primary and 50 secondary milk traders were interviewed. Survey findings showed that milking was predominantly handled by herds-boys (45.0%) or male household heads (23.8%) and occasionally by spouses (16.6%), sons (13.9%) and daughters (0.7%). The main types of containers used by both producers and traders to handle milk were plastic jerricans (recycled cooking oil containers), because they were cheap, light and better suited for transport in vehicles. Milk processing wasthe preserve of women, with fresh camel milk and spontaneously fermented camel milk (suusa) being the main products. Fresh milk was preserved by smoking of milk containers and boiling. Smoking was the predominant practice, and was for extending the shelf life and also imparting a distinct smoky flavour to milk. The milk containerswere fumigated with smoke from burned wood of specific tree species such as Olea africana, Acacia nilotica, Balanities aegyptica and Combretum spp. Boiling was practised by primary milk traders at collection points to preserve milk during times when transport to the market was unavailable. Milk spoilage at the primary collection point in Kulamawe was aggravated by lack of cooling facilities. At the secondary collection point in Isiolo town, milk was refrigerated overnight before onward transmission to Nairobi. The mean quantity of traded milk was 83.2±3.8 litres. The main problems experienced by milk traders in Isiolo included milk spoilage (43.0% ofrespondents), delayed payments—after one or two days (19.9%), loss of money due to informal courier (12.2%), low prices of fermented milk (10.9%), milk rejection by customers in Nairobi (7.1%), inadequate supply during dry season (3.5%), loss of milk due to bursting of containers (2.1%) and milk not being supplied by producers due to insecurity (1.3%). In-depth understanding of the postharvest handling, preservation and processing practices would help to devise appropriate strategies thatwould increase the quantity and improve the quality of marketed camel milk. Such strategies should include the improvement of infrastructure such as milk transport, collection, cooling and processing facilities of suitable capacity

Physico-chemical Characteristics of Refined Lake Victoria Nile Perch (Lates niloticus) Viscera Oil

Nile perch viscera oil was characterized in terms of its physico-chemical properties. The crude oil was refined by neutralization, deodorization and winterization to obtain low melting point (LMP) and the high melting point (HMP) fractions. The oil fractions were analyzed for omega – 3 fatty acids (eicosapentaenoic acid – EPA and docosahexaenoic – DHA), vitamin A, vitamin E, iodine value (IV), saponification value (SV), density, melting point (MP), and smoke point (SP). Crude was used as control. Data were analysed (p £ 0.05) using GenStat software. The yield of winterized oil (LMP) was 39.8 ± 0.5% of crude and 19.6 ± 0.5% of raw material weight. There were no significant differences in density and vitamin E (tocopherol) content of the three fractions, while there were significant differences in the slip MP, SP, SV, IV and vitamin A (retinol) content. There were also significant differences in EPA and DHA contents. EPA and DHA for the LMP were highest, followed by crude and HMP having lowest. High vitamins A and E as well as omega – 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (ω – 3 PUFA) contents and high SP make the crude and HMP fractions suitable for use in cooking. The high amount of LMP fraction has high content of ω – 3 PUFA, making it suitable for use in food, feed and nutraceutics. Keywords: Nile perch; viscera; wet rendering; refining; physico-chemical characteristic

An investigative study of Diffusion of Commercial Aspirin (Acetylsalicylic acid) in Sodium Hydroxide Solution at 25oC

Diffusion is a macroscopic motion of components of a system that arises from concentration difference. Reaction diffusion is widely used to model developmental process. This project considers effective mechanism leading to effective diffusion coefficient. A mathematical formalism for transforming local transport law into diffusive terms is developed. The diffusion coefficient of drug aspirin was studied in basic NaOH of concentration range 0.01 to 0.1M at 25oC. The rate of diffusion was monitored by observing the boundary conditions of the indicator between the drug and solution. In the study five (5) aspirin tablets collected from a local pharmacy in Eldoret town were used for the study. From the profile it was observed that as the time progressed the boundary increased fast for non-coated tablets compared to the coated ones. All the aspirin were found to give values according to underlying mechanism. For the drug A (600mg) of aspirin the best value of diffusion coefficient of 1.69 x 10-4 cm2 sec-1 was observed while the values for coated drug E with 75 mg aspirin was found to be slightly lower. Fickian mechanism is believed to be the consequence of drug molecule small size.  First of all fractional drug uptake is linear and independent of the sample of thickness when In [NaOH] is plotted against square distance. A graph of x2 against In [NaOH] was plotted which was used to calculate the diffusion coefficient. The experimental values of diffusion coefficient D were within the experimental error to those of (4Dt)-1. The study also adopted a descriptive case study; it was conducted at Kimumu municipality, Eldoret town. The target population consisted of 25 respondents. Data was collected using self-administered questionnaires and interview schedules, coded and analysed using SPSS version 16.0. Systematic quantitative review data was analysed using means and frequency tables and percentages while qualitative data was analyzed using inferential statistics chi-square. Data was presented using table, pie charts and graphs.  The study found that most of the individuals preferred drug B. Keywords:  Diffusion, Aspirin, Acetylsalicylic acid, Diffusion Coefficient, Sodium Hydroxide, Fickian Mechanism, Systematic Revie

Analysis of the Impediments influencing the Management of Special Needs Education in Inclusive Settings in Primary Schools in Embu County, Kenya.

In recent times there has been a growing support of inclusive education worldwide, formation of numerous commissions, change of policies and education systems, support from NGO’s and group activists all advocating for better lives for persons with special needs, (PWSN) however it has been observed that the PWSN still face stigmatization, exclusion/seclusion from meaningful participation in the economic, social, political and cultural lives of their communities. This study sought to analyze the impediments influencing the management of  special needs education in inclusive settings in primary schools and to make an assessment of the situation on the ground with a view to making suggestions and recommendations on how to overcome the reasons for effective and efficient management of inclusion so that the persons with special needs can access all the essentials of life and so live a meaningful life. The study adopted a survey design. This study was conducted in Upper Embu County which is made up of three districts, Embu West, East and Embu North. The target population was a total of 180 respondents from 60 schools practicing inclusion. The study collected both primary and secondary data. A semi-structured questionnaire was used to collect data. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used for analysis of data and for descriptive analysis, percentage and frequency distributions were used. The study concluded that inclusive education is available. Disagreement on whether to practice inclusion or not featured as factors. Causes of retardation for effective management of special needs education in inclusive settings in primary schools of Embu County were diverse, covering all the aspects of learning from labeling, cultural factors, policy issues, curriculum, staffing, learning and teaching resources, the children themselves, attitudes, professional and parental disagreement among others. The study also concluded that although the schools in Embu County have physical and human resources, the resources do not respond and match to the needs of special needs education. The MOEST to come up with a national policy on implementation of IE which will address all the noted difficulties. Keywords: Special Needs Education, Inclusion, Management

Internal root morphology in mandibular first permanent molars in a Kenyan population

Objective: To determine the internal root morphology and gender  variations in mandibular first permanent molars in a Kenyan population.Design: In vitro descriptive cross sectional study.Setting: School of Dental Sciences, University of NairobiResults: The mesial root of mandibular first molars had two canals in 96.3% of the teeth in both males and females and type IV canal configuration was most prevalent in the mesial root. The distal root of the mandibular first molar had one canal in 57.7% of the teeth in males and females. There were significant gender variations in the number of canals and canal configurations in the distal root. Two canals were more prevalent in females (53.6%) compared to males (30.4%) and a single canal was more frequent in males (69.6%) compared to females (46.4%) (P=0.001). Canal types I, II and IV were the most frequent in the mandibular distal root. The gender variation in the frequency of canal types I, II and IV in the distal root was statistically significant (P=0.001).Conclusion: Most of the mandibular first molars have three canals (56%). Two canals in the distal root are more frequent among females (53.6%) compared to males (30.4%)

Seroprevalence of HAV, HBV, HCV, and HEV among acute hepatitis patients at Kenyatta National Hospital in Nairobi, Kenya

Background: Acute viral hepatitis is most frequently caused by the hepatitis A virus (HAV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), hepatitis D virus (HDV) and hepatitis E virus (HEV).Objectives: To determine seroprevalence of HAV, HBV, HCV and HEV among patients with acute hepatitis in Nairobi, Kenya, elucidate various risk factors for hepatitis viral infection and determine the co-infection rates with these viruses in the acute hepatitis patients.Design: Across sectional descriptive study.Setting: Kenyatta National Hospital, from November 2007 to April 2008.Subjects: One hundred patients were recruited by purposive sampling method and comprised of 57 males and 43 females.Results: Among the enrolled patients, twenty three tested positive for one or more markers of acute viral hepatitis, that is, HAV, HBV, HCV and HEV. No markers were detected in 77 patients, 2% tested positive for IgM anti-HAV; 11% for IgM anti-HBc; 3% for HBsAg; 5% for HCV RNA and 7% for IgM anti-HEV.Various risk factors associated with acute viral hepatitis were identified; poor sanitation, source of water, occupation, place of residence, level of education,household size, drug abuse and sexual behaviours. Co-infection rate with hepatitis Viruses was at 4%, IgM anti-HAV and IgM anti-HEV 1 % (n=1); IgM anti-HBc and IgM anti-HEV 1% (n=1); IgM anti-HBc and anti-HCV 2% (n=2).Three patients were positive for HBsAg; among this two were negative for IgM anti-HBc and this accounted for HBV carriage (2 %).Conclusion: Hepatitis viruses’ infections are common cause of hepatitis among patients with acute hepatitis at Kenyatta National Hospital. Co-infection with these viruses was also identified among these patients

Survey of Nematode-Destroying Fungi from Selected Vegetable-Growing Areas in Kenya

Plant-parasitic nematodes cause severe damage to a wide range of economic crops, causing upto 5% yield losses globally. In Kenya, vegetables are affected, among other pests, by parasitic nematodes, causing upto 80% loss in yield. Nematode control is very difficult and relies heavily on use of chemical nematicides. Use of these chemical nematicides leads to biological magnification, and elimination of natural enemies of other pathogens, thus creating a need for greater application of pesticides, increased production costs, and development of insecticide-resistance. These factors have led to a growing interest in search for alternate management strategies. The objective of this study was, therefore, to document nematode-destroying fungi in selected, major vegetable-growing areas in Kenya as a step towards developing a self-sustaining system for management of plant-parasitic nematodes. Soil samples were collected from five vegetable-production zones, viz., Kinare, Kabete, Athi-river, Machakos and Kibwezi, and transported to the laboratory for extraction of nematode-destroying fungi. The soil-sprinkle technique described by Jaffee et al (1996) was used for isolating the nematode-destroying fungi from soil, while, their identification was done using identification keys described by Soto Barrientos et al (2001). From this study, a total of 171 fungal isolates were identified as nematodedestroying. The highest population was recorded in Kabete, at 33.9% of the total, followed by Machakos, Kibwezi, Athi-river, with the least in Kinare, at 24.6, 22.2, 11.7 and 7.6% of the total population, in that order. Arthrobotrys was the most frequent genus, with mean occurrence of 7.3, followed by Monacrosporium with 6 and Stylophage with 5.2. A. dactyloides was significantly (P=0.002) affected by the agro-ecological zone, with the highest occurrence recorded in Kabete, and the least in Athi-river. Kibwezi recorded highest diversity index, with a mean of 1.017, while, Athi-river recorded the least, with a mean of 0.333. Kibwezi had the highest species richness, recording a mean of 3.4, while, the least mean of 1.6 was recorded in Athi-river. Mean species richness of 2.2 was recorded for both Kabete and Machakos, and 1.8 for Kinare. From the three genera recorded, Arthrobotrys was more effective at trapping nematodes compared to Monocrosporium and Stylopage. The genus Arthrobotrys had the highest number of trapped nematodes, with a total population of 57, followed by Monacrosporium, the least being Stylopage, with 45 and 36, respectively, in a period of 104 hours. From the study, it is evident that agricultural practices affect occurrence and diversity of nematodedestroying fungi, and, Arthrobotrys can be used as a bio-control agent for managing plant-parasitic nematodes

Cytokine expression in malaria-infected non-human primate placentas

Malaria parasites are known to mediate the induction of inflammatory immune responses at the maternal-foetal interface during placental malaria (PM) leading to adverse consequences like pre-term deliveries and abortions. Immunological events that take place within the malaria-infected placental micro-environment leading to retarded foetal growth and disruption of pregnancies are among the critical parameters that are still in need of further elucidation. The establishment of more animal models for studying placental malaria can provide novel ways of circumventing problems experienced during placental malaria research in humans such as inaccurate estimation of gestational ages. Using the newly established olive baboon (Papio anubis)-Plasmodium knowlesi (P. knowlesi) H strain model of placental malaria, experiments were carried out to determine placental cytokine profiles underlying the immunopathogenesis of placental malaria. Four pregnant olive baboons were infected with blood stage P. knowlesi H strain parasites on the one fiftieth day of gestation while four other uninfected pregnant olive baboons were maintained as uninfected controls. After nine days of infection, placentas were extracted from all the eight baboons through cesarean surgery and used for the processing of placental plasma and sera samples for cytokine sandwich enzyme linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA). Results indicated that the occurrence of placental malaria was associated with elevated concentrations of tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-{\alpha}) and interleukin 12 (IL-12). Increased levels of IL-4, IL-6 and IL-10 and interferon gamma (IFN-{\gamma}) levels were detected in uninfected placentas. These findings match previous reports regarding immunity during PM thereby demonstrating the reliability of the olive baboon-P. knowlesi model for use in further studies.Comment: Open Veterinary Journal 1st June 2012. Seven pages, Three Figures. arXiv admin note: text overlap with arXiv:1201.323

E. coli and Salmonella Contamination of Tomato Marketed and Consumed in Nairobi Metropolis

Tomato, a worldwide consumed commodity for its nutritive values can harbour Salmonella and E.coli. Tomato can contribute to diarrheal illnesses; and associated burden in households. Seasonal bacterial analyses to detect enterobacteria were conducted from January to June 2017 in Nairobi. The study shows that, the vegetable during the study period is 94% contaminated with E. coli and 28% with Salmonella. February had the highest contamination during the dry season (2.37 log10cfu.ml-1 >2; p≤ 0.05) and May (2.8 log10cfu.ml-1 >2; p≤ 0.05) the highest in wet season. Thus, seasons have influence on microbial contamination in tomato. Bacteria multiplication slows in dry period and increases in wet season. Increase of bacteria from March (end of dry season or beginning of rains) to high presence in May (end of rains) might come with more health concerns if attention is not paid to ready-to-eat vegetables. Consumers purchasing from open air markets seem more at risk of bacterial infection (Kangemi 1.84±0.159; Githurai 2.02±0.1815; Wakulima 1.97±0.24 of E. coli contamination) compared to those who use supermarkets (Nakumatt W. 1.54±0.134; Uchumi Sarit C. 1.27±0.105). Although most tomatoes were washed and cleaned, bacteria levels were still a threat to health. Surfactants from pesticides might contribute to tomatoes infection as they are able to wound skins of crops and open ways to bacterial contamination. With sudden bacterial increase in wet seasons (Kangemi 2.98±0.225kl; Githurai 2.75±0.157efghi; Wakulima 2.69±0.067ghijk; Nakumatt 1.78±0.092bcd; Uchumi 1.54±0.215cde), consumers might experience more symptoms of enteric bacteria. Special attention should be paid in wet times as best quality of tomato at sight is not necessarily safe for direct consumption without further processing. These findings might help in understanding why consumers of salad might be exposed to symptoms of enteric bacteria in wet times. Food handlers, health workers, consumers and policy designers should be informed of this risk. Keywords: E. coli, Salmonella spp, bacteria, season, contaminatio