The Impacts of Small-Scale Gold Mining on Food Security in Ghana

Small-scale gold mining has expanded in many countries in Sub-Saharan Africa and other parts of the world including Peru and the Philippines, over the last two decades. Numerous factors, including rising gold prices, agricultural poverty, and administrative difficulties, have been cited as explanations for the rapid growth. The rapid growth of small-scale gold mining has a plethora of implications for agriculture, particularly smallholder farming. This is because the primary resource (land) on which mining, and agriculture are based is scarce, and mineral deposits frequently coincide with land suitable for agriculture. Additionally, mining and agriculture both consume large amounts of water and are labour intensive. Thus, a direct link between the expansion of small-scale gold mining and its impact on smallholder agriculture has been established in various countries throughout Sub-Saharan Africa, though opinions vary on whether the relationship is complementary or competitive. Additionally, the impacts of these connections on food security have received relatively little attention, and they are heavily underrepresented in the literatures on small-scale mining and food security. This thesis closes this knowledge gap by shedding light on the impact of small-scale gold mining on food security and contributing to the debate over the relationship between small-scale gold mining and smallholder farming. I argue, using a mixed method case study in Ghana, that mining has a negative impact on food security and that women and children bear a disproportionate share of the burden. Additionally, I demonstrated how competitive and conflict-ridden the relationship between small-scale mining and smallholder farming is. This study was guided by a novel synthesis of the capability approach and a political ecology perspective. I begin by examining how structural and economic reforms have influenced mining and agricultural activities in Ghana over time, as well as the consequences of these reforms, with a particular emphasis on the often-overlooked ecological footprints. Second, I quantify and predict the pattern of land use and land cover change that would occur under various scenarios, as well as the factors that would cause these changes. Thirdly, I examine the factors affecting miners and smallholder farmers' access to critical resources (land, water, and labour), as well as the key actors in the mining and smallholder farming subsectors, as well as their power hierarchy and relationship. Finally, I examine the relationships between mining and smallholder farming and the state of individual food security (availability, access, utilisation, and stability). The key findings are as follows: first, that the promotion of export-oriented commodities such as gold and cash crops such as cocoa and oil palm at the expense of peasant farmers' food crops is associated with severe ecological impacts that remain shielded in the absence of required environmental legislation until they exacerbate. There are also flashpoints of conflict between mining and smallholder farming, which has been aggravated by recent reforms and lays the groundwork for future conflicts. Second, four distinct periods of land use and land cover dynamics for mining footprints were identified using a combination of social science and geospatial methods: periods of none to limited increase, gradual to accelerated increase, sharp increase, and gradual decrease in mining footprints. These land use and land cover dynamics were found to be associated with three major ecological impacts of mining: land degradation, deforestation, and water pollution. Over a 34-year period, a total of 27,333 ha (36% of forest cover) was lost, along with severe land degradation and water pollution. If mining activities continue at their current pace, the study predicts increased ecological impacts. Third, the previously coexisting mining and smallholder farming subsectors are now fiercely competing for access to critical resources (land, labour, and water), a situation shaped by unequal power relations between the two subsectors' key actors. Finally, small-scale gold mining significantly contributes to food insecurity and, as a result, to the poor health and well-being of many people, particularly women and children. Half of the study participants experienced moderate food insecurity, while 13% experienced severe food insecurity. Additionally, 79% of women of reproductive age (15 to 49) were unable to meet the Minimum Dietary Diversity (MDD) requirements, a measure of micronutrient adequacy and, thus, food quality. Furthermore, local challenges with food availability, as well as associated challenges with food access and utilisation, erode food stability over time, forcing more people to adopt alternative coping strategies. The findings of this study provide novel empirical evidence on the impacts of small-scale gold mining on food security and highlight the importance of integrating mixed and geospatial methods. Additionally, the findings demonstrate the value of combining political ecology and capability approaches in natural resource governance and food security research

Households’ Coping Dynamics to Climatic Shocks of Flood and Drought in Northern Ghana

The Guinea and Sudan Savannah zones of Ghana experiences much of the recent climate change effects than any other ecological zone in the country. This paper presents the coping strategies adopted by households in response to the climate change effects of floods and droughts in Northern Ghana. The study espoused a case study design. Key informants’ interviews, focus group discussions and household interviews were the methods applied in gathering primary data from 250 household heads randomly selected from six farming communities along the white Volta basin within three disaster prone districts. The descriptive statistic tool of SPSS was employed in analyzing, summarizing and describing the data obtained. Key subjective views of the participants were also presented using quotations. Destruction of food crops and livestock, decline in crop yield and food shortage as well as destruction of building were identified by the study as the most devastating effects of floods and droughts in the study areas. To cope with these effects, households adopted various coping dynamics which included decision not to farm or build in lowlands areas or waterways, migration, reliance on external support and early planning of activities. The study concludes that the effects of both floods and drought in Northern Ghana poses great challenges to livelihoods of households who have adapted by find coping strategies. The findings reveal new dimensions of the empirical accounts on households’ coping dynamics in response the climatic effects of flood and drought. Keywords: Floods; droughts; climate change; coping strategies; rural househol

The Complexities of Small Towns’ Water Systems: Evidence from Two Selected Small Towns in the Middle Belt of Ghana

Most small towns in Ghana have been experiencing unsustainable water supply systems due myriad challenges. This paper focuses on the exploring the nature and extent of these complex challenges. The study was conducted in Kokofu and Parambo-Sawaba Water Supply Systems in the Ashanti and Brong Ahafo Regions of Ghana respectively. Focus group discussions and key informants’ interviews were the techniques espoused for this study. In all, ninety-six participants, comprising of eighty community members and sixteen key informants were purposively selected for the study. Data was analysed by identifying gaps between theory and practice, taking into consideration the Guidelines of Small Town Water Sector of Ghana. The study identified the major challenges facing the water systems as: infrastructure inadequacies; the lack of preventive maintenance systems; weak institutional collaboration inter alia. The study concludes that although small town water systems provides an avenue for supplying safe and potable water to small towns in Ghana, the above-mentioned challenges pose a great threat to sustainable water services delivery. Keywords: Complexities; Small Towns; Water System; Ghana

The Relationship Between Annual Rainfall Totals, Rainfall Onsets and Cocoa Yields in Ashanti Region of Ghana: A Reality or Farce?

Cocoa production in Ghana is basically rain fed and this makes it vulnerable to climate change and variability. This paper is part of an on-going research, which is investigating how changes in the climatic conditions in Ghana are affecting production levels of the cocoa industry. The study uses basically secondary data from the Ghana Cocoa Marketing Company and the Ghana Meteorological Service Weather stations at the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi and the Kumasi Airport between 1970 and 2010. Findings from the study reveal a decline in cocoa production of about 100,000 metric tonnes between 1970 and 1984 in the study region and increasing trend of rainfall totals. Notwithstanding, a direct correlation between rainfall totals and rainfall onsets; and cocoa yields could not be established. However, the study found a highly significant effect of climate variability in rainfall onset and annual rainfall totals on cocoa yield (p-value 0.01). The study thus concludes that climatic change and variability have influence on Ghana’s cocoa sector which calls for effective mitigation measures. Keywords: cocoa production, climate change and variabilit

The interface of environment and human wellbeing: Exploring the impacts of gold mining on food security in Ghana

This paper explores the intricate connections between the environment and human wellbeing, focusing on the interplay between mining, agriculture, and food security. Despite a vast body of literature examining the impact of mining on agriculture and subsequent implications for food security, there remains a notable gap in comprehensive studies evaluating these effects across all dimensions of food security: availability, access, utilisation, and stability. Particularly lacking are assessments regarding the food diversity of women of reproductive age in mining areas. Drawing from a survey involving 460 participants, alongside 85 face-to-face interviews, the study extensively investigates the complex relationship between small-scale mining, smallholder farming, and food security. It elucidates both the positive and negative aspects of this nexus, emphasising its influence on economic activities, market dynamics, employment opportunities, and income generation. However, the study also sheds light on adverse consequences, such as land dispossession, water pollution, and increased competition for labour. Utilising the Food Insecurity Experience Scale (FIES) survey, the research reveals alarming levels of food insecurity, with 50.1% experiencing moderate food insecurity and 13.3% facing severe food insecurity, surpassing the national average. This highlights a significant portion of the population enduring at least a day without adequate food, particularly impacting women with low dietary diversity scores. These findings underscore the intricate linkages between mining, smallholder farming, and individual well-being, concluding that while mining may stimulate local economies, it substantially undermines food security across its fundamental dimensions. Consequently, mining emerges as a substantial contributor to food insecurity and compromises the well-being of numerous individuals, disproportionately affecting the most vulnerable groups, especially women

Cocoa Purchasing and the Issue of Insecurity in the Akontombra District in the Western Region of Ghana

The cocoa industry in Ghana is plagued with a number of challenges. Among such challenges is the issue of insecurity. This notwithstanding, there are limited scholarly findings on the nature and the underlying factors associated with these insecurity issues. This paper examined the cocoa industry in the Sefwi Akontombra District in the Western Region of Ghana and presents an analysis of the processes and procedures for cocoa purchasing in the district; the securityarrangements and mechanisms put in place during cocoa purchasing peak periods; the nature of access roads in cocoa growing areas in the district; and the influence of access roads on the insecurity of cocoa purchasing in the district. The study adopted a qualitative research approach and using a cross sectional study design, the case of OLAM Ghana Limited, a private licensed cocoa buying company operating in Sefwi Akontombra was examined. Primary data were gathered from purchasing clerks, drivers, warehouse keepers and officials of the company. Data from the District Command of the Ghana Police Service and the Department of Feeder Roads district office were solicited using interview guides. Non-participant observation and taking of photography were also employed as data capturing mechanism during the study. The study espoused content analysis in analysing the contents of the interviews and observational field notes in order to identify the main themes that emerge from the responses given by the respondents or the observation notes made. Inferences and implications were drawn then drawn from the analysis. The study found out that there was no security measure by OLAM Ghana Limited to ensure the safety of funds meant for cocoa buying, the storage and the transportation of cocoa beans in the study district. There was also no security arrangement during peak cocoa purchasing periods in the study district by key stakeholders within the cocoa sector in the district. Moreover, access road was further found out to be a major factor that accounts for some of the insecurity issues associated with cocoa purchasing activities in the Sefwi Akontombra District. The study thus recommends the development and adoption of security arrangements and mechanism by all stakeholders within the cocoa industry in the study district and the making of security issues a top priority by OLAM Ghana Limited

Beyond legislation: Unpacking land access capability in small-scale mining and its intersections with the agriculture sector in sub-Saharan Africa

The complex relationship between mining and agriculture in Africa is deeply rooted in a complex network of spatial, political, and socio-economic dynamics. In Ghana, for instance, the forest agroecological zone, responsible for 57 % of food crop production, coincides with 61 % of mineral-rich areas. This overlap leads to significant implications, such as competition and conflicts over land, as both livelihood activities rely on a finite natural resource: land. To examine land access politics at the intersections of mining and agriculture using Ghana as a case study, we adopt a unique blend of Amartya Sen's capability approach and political ecology approach. Our study draws on secondary information, on-site observations, and primary data acquired from interviews and focus group discussions with stakeholders in both sectors. Through the lens of political ecology, our research highlights the significant powers of state actors, especially in the mining sector, on land access, exacerbating tensions and conflicts among non-state actors like small-scale miners, smallholder farmers, and traditional authorities. Additionally, by applying the capability approach, we uncover the diverse agency-driven strategies employed by non-state actors, sometimes operating outside existing laws, and we emphasize the competitive dynamics between small-scale miners and smallholder farmers as they vie for land resources to support their economic activities. We therefore argue that the spatial and socio-economic interconnectedness of mining and agriculture is rife with dramatic tensions underpinned by unequal power relations and a hierarchical structure of actors within the two sectors, with potential for zero-sum or worse than zero-sum outcomes for humans and the physical environment at multiple scales

Gold mining's environmental footprints, drivers, and future predictions in Ghana

The last two decades have seen a surge in gold mining operations around the world. Despite mining occupying a smaller geographical area compared to other land use/land cover (LULC) classes, it exhibits strong interconnections with various land uses and serves as a major driver for changes in mining landscapes. Understanding and evaluating historical and potential future LULC changes in these landscapes are crucial in assessing the environmental impact of mining. Traditionally, these assessments heavily rely on geospatial techniques, with limited emphasis on projecting future LULC trends. This research aims to monitor, analyse the drivers of change, and predict future changes in LULC under two scenarios: the “business as usual” scenario and the "remedial measures" scenarios. Utilising the CA-Markov model, this article predicts LULC changes and offers comprehensive insights into the environmental impacts of mining, combining geospatial and social research methodologies. The investigation spanned a 34-year period (1986–2020) and employed a blend of supervised and unsupervised image classification methods, complemented by interviews, focus groups, and field observations. The findings reveal substantial land degradation, water pollution, and a significant loss of forest cover, accounting for 27,333 ha (36%). Continuation of current mining practices is predicted to lead to further ecological deterioration