Evaluation Methods for the Measurement of Lower Leg Edema in Healthy Young Adults

Background: In recent years, objective quantitative evaluations have become particularly important. Both qualitative and quantitative evaluations are also available for edema. It is thought that the technical problem of quantitative evaluation can be solved by using a simple and reproducible method. Several studies have evaluated various methods for measuring edema. Limitations, such as weaknesses, measurement complexity, and errors, have been identified. Therefore, this study aimed to consider a simple and effective measurement method for the quantitative evaluation of edema. Methods: This study was a prospective, observational study. The subjects were 15 healthy adults (2 male and 13 female). Measurements were performed on the subjects’ right lower leg once in the morning and once in the afternoon, with a minimum interval of 4 hours. Results: The actual volume of the lower leg was correlated with all indices except the ultrasonic echo findings for subcutaneous tissue. The intra-subject and inter-subject reliabilities for the indices using digital images were very high. The lower leg volume was greater significantly in the afternoon from the morning. Conclusion: The leg circumference was measured by utilizing a tape, while the width and volume were measured by utilizing digital imaging suitable for quantitatively evaluating edema. Furthermore, swelling of the lower leg with time can occur in the absence of daily exercise

Posture Induced Changes in the Maximal M-wave and the H-reflex Amplitude

The purpose of this study was to investigate posture induced changes in the H-reflex and maximal M-wave (M_max) amplitude in soleus muscle (SOL). The hypothesis of the present study is that both H-reflex amplitude and M_max amplitude change with posture. Nine healthy males were tested under two randomly administered conditions; prone and standing position. The ankle joint angle was set at the same angle in each postural condition by monitoring the electrical goniometer. H-reflex was elicited in the SOL from the right leg every 5 seconds using electrical stimulation to the tibial nerve in the popliteal fossa. Surface electromyography (EMG) was recorded from the middle surface of the SOL and the tibialis anterior muscle (TA) using silver bipolar electrodes. Absolute values of H_max, M_max amplitude and H_max/M_max ratio in each postural condition obtained from the H-M recruitment curve were compared. All H_max/M_max ratios, H_max amplitudes and M_max amplitudes were significantly lower in the standing position. The hypothesis of the present study was verified, and M_max amplitude in the SOL was inhibited by the standing posture. There is a possibility that M_max amplitude is changed in conjunction with the posture induced physiological response

A Historical Timeline of Doping in the Olympics (Part III 1989--2006)

This is the last part of a three part paper on a timeline history of doping in the Olympics. Part three of the timeline focuses on the creation of the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), new doping drugs, known drugs that are not detectable to current drug tests, new drug testing procedures and improvements in the sanctioning of athletes. The years 1989-2006 saw a coming together of the world sports community to fight doping. WADA has worked as a powerful umbrella group supporting this fight. It has succeeded in standardizing drug test procedures and sanctions across all Olympic sports disciplines. It has also led to the independence of doping organizations within individual Olympic member countries. This has cut down on cheating at the organizational level.However, doping by athletes continues. WADA monitors doping in many ways: by providing support to research scientists as they devise new tests for known and, as yet, undetectable doping drugs, improved monitoring of athletes like unannounced and out of competition testing, and a sense of fair play whereby superstars are held to the same standard as regards doping as any other competitive Olympic athlete. These programs, unfortunately, are just the beginning. Doping is real, doping continues, doping will be around as long as competitive sport is

Exhaustive Exercise Enhances Immune Response To Flagellin Via Adrenaline-Mediated Up-Regulation of TLR5 Expression

Objective: We already reported that lipopolysacchride (LPS)-induced tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α production as a bacterial infection model to induce immune response, was inhibited by exhaustive exercise. However, it remains unclear whether or not the immune response to flagellin (FG), which binds to toll like receptor 5(TLR5) and induces pro-inflammatory cytokine production, is also inhibited by this severe exercise. The aim of this study was to determine whether or not exhaustive exercise affects TNF-α productions after FG injection in mice. Methods: Both exhaustive-exercised (EX; n=12) and non-exercised (N-EX; n=12) male C3H/HeN mice were injected with FG (1 mg/kg, i.v), and blood samples were collected. In addition, to clarify the effect of catecholamine on immune response macrophage and intestinal cells after FG stimulation, RAW264 cells and Caco2 cells were cultured 30min after propranolol (Prop; β-adrenergic receptors blocker) or Ly294002 (Ly; PI3K inhibitor) treatments, and were then stimulated with adrenaline (AD; 1 μM) and FG (5 μg/ml). Moreover, the effect of Prop (10 mg/kg, n=12) on FG-induced TNF-α production in EX mice was also examined. Results: TNF-α in EX group was significantly higher than that in N-EX group after FG injection. In epithelium cells, more intensity of TLR5 localization was observed on the plasma membrane area than in the cytosol area in EX mice, but not N-EX mice. Caco2 cells, but not RAW264 cells, significantly increased the FG-induced TNF-α production using AD treatment. Moreover, Prop treatment attenuated the AD-induced TNF-α production in response to FG in Caco2 cells. Although TLR5 expression on RAW264 cells was significantly decreased after AD treatment, the expression on Caco2 cells was rapidly increased. In fact, we observed the AD-dependent TLR5 translocation from cytoplasm to cell membrane in Caco2 cells, and the membrane translocation was inhibited by Prop and Ly treatment. Moreover, the pretreatment with Prop attenuated the exercise-induced plasma TNF-α response to FG in vivo. Conclusion: Our results suggest that immune response to FG via TLR5 might be enhanced by exhaustive exercise in mice