Viktige faktorar for å etablera eit varig avlsprogram for mjølkegeit i Tanzania

The overall objective of this thesis was to develop building blocks essential for establishing a sustainable dairy goat breeding program in Tanzania. To fulfil this objective, three approaches were employed. This included field survey (paper I &II), simulation study (paper III) and on-farm experiment and lesson learnt (paper IV). The production systems optimization in paper I showed that dairy goat production brings assurance of less variation in production income in the long term compared to other production systems. However, to achieve this in Tanzania it is necessary to purchase more concentrate feed and implement goat breeding principles. Paper II found that of the 125 respondents, many (35.2%) keep dairy goats for milk production, as many as 30.6% to obtain offspring and sell them, and 24.1% of the respondents emphasized the value of manure. In the study areas, manure was sold to obtain income. High producing goats (33.7%), tolerance to diseases (20%), and high twinning ability (14%) were the most preferred traits by respondents. In addition, the farmers lack knowledge on selection, recording, and animal identification. Paper III found that testing between 20 and 30 bucks per year could lead to a good breeding program with acceptable level of accuracy under local conditions in Tanzania. Testing 30 bucks per year is recommended for Mgeta. Part of paper III also outlines elements necessary for breeding program sustainability. A schematic figure is included to illustrate how selection can be performed through progeny testing to fit current situation in Mgeta. The SWOT analysis in paper IV reveals that Tanzania has a potential for dairy goat development. Strengths are: good policy, presence of research and academic institutions, readiness of private sectors to participate in the dairy goat industry, availability of resources, and that many rural famers already own dairy goats. Weaknesses are: insufficient support from the government, low formal education of farmers, lack of clear breeding goals, and lack of sustainability of breeding selection programs established. These pull back progress in the dairy goat sector. However, there are several opportunities such that information towards solving the limitations are available. In Europe, for example, they seem to do better with animal breeding programs. Quality genetic materials from these successful programs can be accessed by other countries like Tanzania through markets, given that the policy allows. On these grounds in paper IV, occasional import of dairy goat semen for AI to use in a nucleus breeding herd is proposed. Both bucks and female offspring born in such a herd may be supplied to farmers. Quality dairy goats is already a business in Tanzania, hence participation of private sectors in the industry should be encouraged. The government and academic institutions may be watchdogs of what should be happening regarding dairy goats in the country. Threats may include change in policy regarding export/import of buck semen, farmers’ willingness to pay for price of quality bucks, and how quick the market for surplus milk is growing, and participation of milk processors and marketing of derived products. This thesis proposes possibilities of establishing dairy goat breeding program under small scale farms in Tanzania given that better on-farm recording systems including pedigree information is developed. Setting clear breeding goals with a few traits, e.g. milk yield and survival in this case, is recommended. Because of the various practical options and accessibility to new knowledge, it is necessary to revise breeding schemes from time to time. Lastly, this thesis raises the question; ”How many dairy goat breeds are needed in Tanzania?”. This can be a future TALIRI job.Det overordna målet for denne avhandlinga var å utvikla byggjesteinar som er essensielle for å etablera eit bærekraftig avlsprogram for mjølkegeit i Tanzania. For å nå dette målet, blei tre angrepsmåtar brukt: feltstudiar (artikkel I & II), simuleringsstudie (artikkel III) og utprøving i felt og kunnskapsinnsamling (artikkel IV). I arbeidet med å optimalisera produksjonssystemet (artikkel I) viste eg at mjølkeproduksjon fører til mindre variasjon i produksjonsinntekt på lang sikt enn andre produksjonssystem. Men for å oppnå dette i Tanzania bør ein kjøpa meir kraftfôr og nytta moderne avlsprinsipp. I artikkel II fann eg at av dei 125 respondentane, ville mange (35,2%) ha ei geit med høg mjølkeproduksjon. Så mange som 30,6% vil ha fleire avkom per geit (mange tvillingar), og 24,1% av respondentane understreka nytten av gjødsel frå geitene. I dei områda der respondentane blei intervjua blei gjødsel selt og utgjorde ei inntekt frå geitehaldet. Eigenskapar som ein ønskjer å endra var høgare mjølkeproduksjon (33,7%), sjukdomstoleranse (20%), og høgare tvillingfrekvens (14%). I tillegg mangla bøndene kunnskap om utval av avlsdyr, husdyrkontroll og individmerking. I artikkel III fann eg at testing av mellom 20 og 30 bukkar per år kan gje eit godt avlsprogram med akseptabel sikkerheit for å rekna ut avlsverdar. For Mgeta anbefaler vi testing av 30 bukkar per år. I artikkel III skisserte eg òg faktorar som er nødvendige for å få etablert eit varig avlsprogram. Eit skjema som illustrerer korleis eit avlsprogram med avkomsgransking av testbukkar i Mgeta kan gjennomførast er òg tatt med. SWOTanalysen i artikkel IV viser eg at Tanzania har potensiale for å utvikla mjølkeproduksjon på geit vidare. Styrkar i landet er ein god politikk, at det finst forskings- og akademiske institusjonar, at privat sektor er villig til å delta i sektoren, at fôrresursar finst, og at mange bønder alt eig mjølkegeiter. Svakhetar er at det ikkje er nok støtte frå regjeringa, bøndene har lite skulegang, mangel på klare avlsmål, og at avlstiltak ikkje varer. Dette bremsar framgangen i sektoren. Men løysingar på slike problem finst. I Europa, for eksempel, synest dei å lykkast med avlsprogram for husdyr. Genetisk kvalitetsmateriale frå desse vellykka programma kan andre land som Tanzania få del i ved kjøp, gitt at ein får løyve til det. Difor foreslår eg i artikkel IV sporadisk import av sæd for å bruka det i ein elitebuskap for mjølkegeit i Tanzania. Både bukkar og geitekje fødde i ein slik flokk kan seljast til bønder. Mjølkegeiter blir alt nå omsette i Tanzania og slike initiativ i privat sektor bør oppmuntrast. Offentleg sektor kan passa på kva som bør skje med mjølkegeiter i landet. Truslar kan vera endringar i politikken når det gjeld import av genetisk materiale, bønders vilje til å betala for verdifulle avlsdyr, kor raskt mjølkeomsetninga aukar og utvikling av meieri og omsetning av mjølkeprodukt. I denne avhandlinga foreslår eg mulege måtar å få til eit avlsprogram for mjølkegeit gjennom eit samarbeid mellom små mjølkeprodusentar i Tanzania. For å lukkast med dette må mjølkekontroll og individinformasjon innhentast på slike gardar. Klare avlsmål med få eigenskapar, for eksempel mjølkemengde og overleving, blir anbefalt. På grunn av kva som er praktisk mulig og tilgjengeleg kunnskap til ei kvar tid, er det nødvendig å revidere avlsprogram frå tid til anna. Til slutt reiser eg i avhandlinga spørsmålet: «Kor mange mjølkegeitrasar trengst i Tanzania?. Å svara på dette, kan vera ein jobb for forskarane som arbeider ved TALIRI.“Enhancing Pro-poor Innovation in Natural Resources and Agricultural Value Chains (EPINAV)” program supported by the Government of Norway at Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA) (grant No.1.1/06

Heat Stress Effects on Physiological and Milk Yield Traits of Lactating Holstein Friesian Crossbreds Reared in Tanga Region, Tanzania

Global warming caused by climate change is a challenge for dairy farming, especially in sub-Saharan countries. Under high temperatures and relative humidity, lactating dairy cows suffer from heat stress. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects and relationship of heat stress (HS) measured by the temperature–humidity index (THI) regarding the physiological parameters and milk yield and composition of lactating Holstein Friesian crossbred dairy cows reared in the humid coastal region of Tanzania. A total of 29 lactating Holstein Friesian x Zebu crossbred dairy cows with 50% (HF50) and 75% (HF75) Holstein Friesian gene levels in the second and third months of lactation were used. The breed composition of Holstein Friesians was determined based on the animal recording system used at the Tanzania Livestock Research Institute (TALIRI), Tanga. The data collected included the daily temperature, relative humidity, daily milk yield, and physiological parameters (core body temperature, rectal temperature, respiratory rate, and panting score). THI was calculated using the equation of the National Research Council. The THI values were categorized into three classes, i.e., low THI (76–78), moderate THI (79–81), and high THI (82–84). The effects of THI on the physiological parameters and milk yield and composition were assessed. The effects of the genotype, the parity, the lactation month, and the interaction of these parameters with THI on the milk yield, milk composition, and physiological parameters were also investigated. The results show that THI and its interaction with genotypes, parity, and the lactation month had a highly significant effect on all parameters. THI influenced (p ˂ 0.05) the average daily milk yield and milk fat %, protein %, lactose %, and solids–not–fat %. As the THI increased from moderate to high levels, the average daily milk yield declined from 3.49 ± 0.04 to 3.43 ± 0.05 L/day, while the fat % increased from 2.66 ± 0.05% to 3.04 ± 0.06% and the protein decreased from 3.15 ± 0.02% to 3.13 ± 0.03%. No decline in lactose % was observed, while the solid–not–fat % declined from 8.56 ± 0.08% to 8.55 ± 0.10% as the THI values increased from moderate to high. Also, the THI influenced physiological parameters (p ˂ 0.05). The core body temperature (CBT), rectal temperature (RT), respiratory rate (RR) and panting score (PS) increased from 35.60 ± 0.01 to 36.00 ± 0.01 °C, 38.03 ± 0.02 to 38.30 ± 0.02 °C, 62.53 ± 0.29 to 72.35 ± 0.28 breaths/min, and 1.35 ± 0.01 to 1.47 ± 0.09, respectively, as the THI increased from low to high. The THI showed a weak positive correlation with the average daily milk yield and fat percentage, whereas the protein, lactose, and solids–not–fat percentages showed negative relationships with THI (p ≤ 0.05). CBT, RT, RR, and PS showed positive relationships (p ≤ 0.05) with THI. These negative relationships indicate that there is an antagonistic correlation between sensitivity to HS and the level of production. It is concluded that the THI, the genotype, the parity, and the lactation month, along with their interactions with THI, significantly influenced the milk yield, milk composition, and physiological parameters of lactating Holstein Friesian dairy crosses at THI thresholds ranging from 77 to 84.</p

Heat Stress Effects on Physiological and Milk Yield Traits of Lactating Holstein Friesian Crossbreds Reared in Tanga Region, Tanzania

Global warming caused by climate change is a challenge for dairy farming, especially in sub-Saharan countries. Under high temperatures and relative humidity, lactating dairy cows suffer from heat stress. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects and relationship of heat stress (HS) measured by the temperature–humidity index (THI) regarding the physiological parameters and milk yield and composition of lactating Holstein Friesian crossbred dairy cows reared in the humid coastal region of Tanzania. A total of 29 lactating Holstein Friesian x Zebu crossbred dairy cows with 50% (HF50) and 75% (HF75) Holstein Friesian gene levels in the second and third months of lactation were used. The breed composition of Holstein Friesians was determined based on the animal recording system used at the Tanzania Livestock Research Institute (TALIRI), Tanga. The data collected included the daily temperature, relative humidity, daily milk yield, and physiological parameters (core body temperature, rectal temperature, respiratory rate, and panting score). THI was calculated using the equation of the National Research Council. The THI values were categorized into three classes, i.e., low THI (76–78), moderate THI (79–81), and high THI (82–84). The effects of THI on the physiological parameters and milk yield and composition were assessed. The effects of the genotype, the parity, the lactation month, and the interaction of these parameters with THI on the milk yield, milk composition, and physiological parameters were also investigated. The results show that THI and its interaction with genotypes, parity, and the lactation month had a highly significant effect on all parameters. THI influenced (p ˂ 0.05) the average daily milk yield and milk fat %, protein %, lactose %, and solids–not–fat %. As the THI increased from moderate to high levels, the average daily milk yield declined from 3.49 ± 0.04 to 3.43 ± 0.05 L/day, while the fat % increased from 2.66 ± 0.05% to 3.04 ± 0.06% and the protein decreased from 3.15 ± 0.02% to 3.13 ± 0.03%. No decline in lactose % was observed, while the solid–not–fat % declined from 8.56 ± 0.08% to 8.55 ± 0.10% as the THI values increased from moderate to high. Also, the THI influenced physiological parameters (p ˂ 0.05). The core body temperature (CBT), rectal temperature (RT), respiratory rate (RR) and panting score (PS) increased from 35.60 ± 0.01 to 36.00 ± 0.01 °C, 38.03 ± 0.02 to 38.30 ± 0.02 °C, 62.53 ± 0.29 to 72.35 ± 0.28 breaths/min, and 1.35 ± 0.01 to 1.47 ± 0.09, respectively, as the THI increased from low to high. The THI showed a weak positive correlation with the average daily milk yield and fat percentage, whereas the protein, lactose, and solids–not–fat percentages showed negative relationships with THI (p ≤ 0.05). CBT, RT, RR, and PS showed positive relationships (p ≤ 0.05) with THI. These negative relationships indicate that there is an antagonistic correlation between sensitivity to HS and the level of production. It is concluded that the THI, the genotype, the parity, and the lactation month, along with their interactions with THI, significantly influenced the milk yield, milk composition, and physiological parameters of lactating Holstein Friesian dairy crosses at THI thresholds ranging from 77 to 84.</p

Genes and models for estimating genetic parameters for heat tolerance in dairy cattle

Dairy cattle are highly susceptible to heat stress. Heat stress causes a decline in milk yield, reduced dry matter intake, reduced fertility rates, and alteration of physiological traits (e.g., respiration rate, rectal temperature, heart rates, pulse rates, panting score, sweating rates, and drooling score) and other biomarkers (oxidative heat stress biomarkers and stress response genes). Considering the significant effect of global warming on dairy cattle farming, coupled with the aim to reduce income losses of dairy cattle farmers and improve production under hot environment, there is a need to develop heat tolerant dairy cattle that can grow, reproduce and produce milk reasonably under the changing global climate and increasing temperature. The identification of heat tolerant dairy cattle is an alternative strategy for breeding thermotolerant dairy cattle for changing climatic conditions. This review synthesizes information pertaining to quantitative genetic models that have been applied to estimate genetic parameters for heat tolerance and relationship between measures of heat tolerance and production and reproductive performance traits in dairy cattle. Moreover, the review identified the genes that have been shown to influence heat tolerance in dairy cattle and evaluated the possibility of using them in genomic selection programmes. Combining genomics information with environmental, physiological, and production parameters information is a crucial strategy to understand the mechanisms of heat tolerance while breeding heat tolerant dairy cattle adapted to future climatic conditions. Thus, selection for thermotolerant dairy cattle is feasible

Use of simulation to examine a dairy goat breeding program in Tanzania

This paper discusses selection in a dairy goat population for improved performance by conceptualizing it for a population in Tanzania. Seven strategies (5, 10, 20, 30, 50, 70, 100 test bucks) were simulated. A progeny test based selection breeding program fitting Mgeta (Morogoro, Tanzania) situation was optimized. The selection intensity, accuracy of prediction, and genetic gain of milk yield (kg) per day at heritability 0.1 and 0.2 are discussed. Use of natural mating for 1000 goats, in cooperating villages, were assumed. Three elite bucks were selected for breeding with 12% of the best females. Outlines of essential elements for a local sustainable dairy goat breeding program in Tanzania are included with a schematic figure showing selection steps for dairy goat breeding scheme fitting in Mgeta area. This study found that selection intensity gained when testing many bucks is more important for daily milk yield (DMY) (kg) genetic gain than the extra accuracy gained when testing fewer bucks. Mgeta has a mountainous terrain, small herd sizes per farmer and long distance from one cooperating village to another. Testing 30 bucks is practical for Mgeta. That gives relatively high (42% or 53%) accuracy of selection and genetic gain (2% or 2.6% for 0.1 or 0.2 heritability). The current results of estimated genetic gain are close to reported findings under other environments. Based on dairy goats of Norwegian breed in Tanzania, milked once daily, if 210 days of milking and an average of 1 litre milk yield is considered, the possible genetic gain per year in this program is equivalent to an increase of 4.2kg for 0.1 heritability and 5.5kg of milk per doe for 0.2 heritability of the trait. Such an increase in amount of milk due to a breeding program under the considered environment is promising. Collaborative efforts from farmers to consumers along the dairy goat market chain remain important elements to realize a sustainable high gain. The proposed breeding program may not be perfect in future because of practical options and accessibility to new knowledge. Thus, it becomes indispensable to revise breeding programs.publishedVersio

Climate change adaptation in vulnerable crop and livestock production systems in Mgeta, Tanzania

-Increased occurrence of drought and dry spells during the growing season have resulted in increased interest in protection of tropical water catchment areas. In Mgeta, a water catchment area in the Uluguru Mountains in Tanzania, water used for vegetable and fruit production is provided through canals from the Uluguru South Forest Reserve. The clearing of forest land for cultivation in the steep slopes in the area is causing severe land degradation, which is threatening the water catchment area, livelihoods, and food security of the local communities, as well as the major population centers in the lowlands. In this paper, the economic performance of a traditional cropping-livestock system with East African (EA)-goats and pigs and extensive vegetable production is compared with a more sustainable and environmentally friendly crop-dairy goat production system. A linear programming (LP) crop-livestock model, maximizing farm income considering the environmental constraints in the area was applied for studying the economic performance of dairy goats in the production system. The model was worked out for the rainy and dry seasons and the analysis was conducted for a basic scenario representing the current situation, based on the variability in the 30 years period from 1982-2012, and in a scenario of both lower crop yields and increased crop variability due to climate change. Data obtained from a sample of 60 farmers that were interviewed using a questionnaire was used to develop and parameterize the model. The study found that in the steep slopes of the area, a crop-dairy goat system with extensive use of grass and multipurpose trees (MPTs) would do better than the traditional vegetable gardening with the EA goat production system. The crop-dairy goat system was superior both in the basic and in a climate change scenario since the yield variation of the grass and MPTs system was less affected compared to vegetable crops due to more tree cover and the use of perennial grasses. However, the goat milk production in the area was constrained by inadequate feeding and lack of an appropriate breeding program. Hence, farmers should enhance goat milk production by supplementing with more concentrate feed and by implementing goat-breeding principles. Moreover, policy measures to promote such a development are briefly discussed

Situation analysis and prospects for establishing a dairy goat breeding program in Tanzania

Dairy goats in Tanzania accounts for two percent of the 17 million goats in total. Toggenburg, Saanen, Norwegian, Anglo Nubian and French alpine are dominant exotic dairy breeds distributed in all regions of Tanzania but abundance in Manyara, Morogoro, Arusha and Kilimanjaro regions. Both public and private organizations have played in importing and distribution the exotic breeds in the country. For example, the collaboration between in Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA) and Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU) participated importing the Norwegian goat breed. The FARM Africa (Food and Agricultural Research Management) and HPI (Heifer Project International) responsible for Toggenburg and Saanen dairy breeds. The support with dairy goats has proven to be rather effective in improving food security and livelihood of people who owned them. Long term benefits of the goats can be realized if breeding principles are well considered e.g. reliable source of replacement breeding stock. As a step towards achieving that, a Strength, Weakness, Opportunity and Threats (SWOT) analysis of a dairy goat breeding program in Tanzania today were analysed in this paper. The analysis revealed potential possibilities for establishing sustainable dairy goat breeding program in the country. However, poor and unreliable records were the main hindrances for sustainable genetic improvement of goats in the country. Alternatively, this paper propose a simplified breeding plan that benefits from progress made elsewhere through occasional semen import for AI in one breeding nucleus herd in the country, multiplied by another unit/centre for distribution to clients. Key roles and risks of private and public institutions participating in implementing the breeding plan are highlighted.publishedVersio

Climate change adaptation in vulnerable crop and livestock production systems in Mgeta, Tanzania

-Increased occurrence of drought and dry spells during the growing season have resulted in increased interest in protection of tropical water catchment areas. In Mgeta, a water catchment area in the Uluguru Mountains in Tanzania, water used for vegetable and fruit production is provided through canals from the Uluguru South Forest Reserve. The clearing of forest land for cultivation in the steep slopes in the area is causing severe land degradation, which is threatening the water catchment area, livelihoods, and food security of the local communities, as well as the major population centers in the lowlands. In this paper, the economic performance of a traditional cropping-livestock system with East African (EA)-goats and pigs and extensive vegetable production is compared with a more sustainable and environmentally friendly crop-dairy goat production system. A linear programming (LP) crop-livestock model, maximizing farm income considering the environmental constraints in the area was applied for studying the economic performance of dairy goats in the production system. The model was worked out for the rainy and dry seasons and the analysis was conducted for a basic scenario representing the current situation, based on the variability in the 30 years period from 1982-2012, and in a scenario of both lower crop yields and increased crop variability due to climate change. Data obtained from a sample of 60 farmers that were interviewed using a questionnaire was used to develop and parameterize the model. The study found that in the steep slopes of the area, a crop-dairy goat system with extensive use of grass and multipurpose trees (MPTs) would do better than the traditional vegetable gardening with the EA goat production system. The crop-dairy goat system was superior both in the basic and in a climate change scenario since the yield variation of the grass and MPTs system was less affected compared to vegetable crops due to more tree cover and the use of perennial grasses. However, the goat milk production in the area was constrained by inadequate feeding and lack of an appropriate breeding program. Hence, farmers should enhance goat milk production by supplementing with more concentrate feed and by implementing goat-breeding principles. Moreover, policy measures to promote such a development are briefly discussed

Situation analysis and prospects for establishing a dairy goat breeding program in Tanzania

Dairy goats in Tanzania accounts for two percent of the 17 million goats in total. Toggenburg, Saanen, Norwegian, Anglo Nubian and French alpine are dominant exotic dairy breeds distributed in all regions of Tanzania but abundance in Manyara, Morogoro, Arusha and Kilimanjaro regions. Both public and private organizations have played in importing and distribution the exotic breeds in the country. For example, the collaboration between in Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA) and Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU) participated importing the Norwegian goat breed. The FARM Africa (Food and Agricultural Research Management) and HPI (Heifer Project International) responsible for Toggenburg and Saanen dairy breeds. The support with dairy goats has proven to be rather effective in improving food security and livelihood of people who owned them. Long term benefits of the goats can be realized if breeding principles are well considered e.g. reliable source of replacement breeding stock. As a step towards achieving that, a Strength, Weakness, Opportunity and Threats (SWOT) analysis of a dairy goat breeding program in Tanzania today were analysed in this paper. The analysis revealed potential possibilities for establishing sustainable dairy goat breeding program in the country. However, poor and unreliable records were the main hindrances for sustainable genetic improvement of goats in the country. Alternatively, this paper propose a simplified breeding plan that benefits from progress made elsewhere through occasional semen import for AI in one breeding nucleus herd in the country, multiplied by another unit/centre for distribution to clients. Key roles and risks of private and public institutions participating in implementing the breeding plan are highlighted