IgM and IgD B cell receptors differentially respond to endogenous antigens and control B cell fate.

Naive B cells co-express two BCR isotypes, IgM and IgD, with identical antigen-binding domains but distinct constant regions. IgM but not IgD is downregulated on autoreactive B cells. Because these isotypes are presumed to be redundant, it is unknown how this could impose tolerance. We introduced the Nur77-eGFP reporter of BCR signaling into mice that express each BCR isotype alone. Despite signaling strongly in vitro, IgD is less sensitive than IgM to endogenous antigen in vivo and developmental fate decisions are skewed accordingly. IgD-only Lyn-/- B cells cannot generate autoantibodies and short-lived plasma cells (SLPCs) in vivo, a fate thought to be driven by intense BCR signaling induced by endogenous antigens. Similarly, IgD-only B cells generate normal germinal center, but impaired IgG1+ SLPC responses to T-dependent immunization. We propose a role for IgD in maintaining the quiescence of autoreactive B cells and restricting their differentiation into autoantibody secreting cells

Policies and Practices to Improve the Chemistry Graduate Student Experience: Implications of the ACS Survey of Graduate Students

4 pagesSTEM graduate education is vitally important in producing the talent needed to fuel our economy and provide solutions for the challenges we face in emerging diseases and climate change. Yet recent research indicates that women and students who identify as members of minority groups traditionally underrepresented in STEM face extraordinary challenges in their graduate careers. This commentary describes ways in which chemistry graduate education could become more supportive and inclusive through changes by graduate students, faculty, departments, funding agencies, and professional organizations. As a result the scientific workforce could utilize the full range of available talent and become more productive

The Chemistry Graduate Student Experience: Findings from an ACS Survey

8 pagesGraduate training is a key element in producing a scientific workforce that reflects the nation’s diversity. This paper examines data from a 2013 American Chemical Society (ACS) survey of 2,544 chemistry masters and doctoral students and reveals barriers to reaching this goal. Multivariate statistical analyses indicate that women reported significantly less supportive relationships with advisors. Women were less likely to plan to finish their degrees, and for PhD students, the discrepancy was larger for students at the start of their graduate program. Women were also less likely to pursue the next level of training, and the gender difference related to postdoctoral plans was greater for those who identified with a racial−ethnic group traditionally underrepresented in chemistry (underrepresented minority, URM). URM students who were beyond the first year of their graduate program reported significantly less supportive relationships with peers. They were also less likely to have funding sufficient to meet their needs and more often used personal resources including loans. Despite these difficulties, URM students were more likely to definitely plan to finish their degrees, and men who identified as URM were more likely to plan to pursue postdoctoral work. Independent of gender and identification as URMs, students in more highly ranked schools reported less advisor support. Extensive open-ended comments indicated that large proportions of the students desired more attention and meaningful feedback from advisors and changes within their programs to promote support for students and advisor accountability. Suggestions for future research are given, and a companion commentary discusses needed directions for change

Methacholine bronchial provocation measured by spirometry versus wheeze detection in preschool children

BACKGROUND: Determination of PC(20)-FEV(1) during Methacholine bronchial provocation test (MCT) is considered to be impossible in preschool children, as it requires repetitive spirometry sets. The aim of this study was to assess the feasibility of determining PC(20)-FEV(1) in preschool age children and compares the results to the wheeze detection (PCW) method. METHODS: 55 preschool children (ages 2.8–6.4 years) with recurrent respiratory symptoms were recruited. Baseline spirometry and MCT were performed according to ATS/ERS guidelines and the following parameters were determined at baseline and after each inhalation: spirometry-indices, lung auscultation at tidal breathing, oxygen saturation, respiratory and heart rate. Comparison between PCW and PC(20)-FEV(1) and clinical parameters at these end-points was done by paired Student's t-tests. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: Thirty-six of 55 children (65.4%) successfully performed spirometry-sets up to the point of PCW. PC(20)-FEV(1) occurred at a mean concentration of 1.70+/-2.01 while PCW occurred at a mean concentration of 4.37+/-3.40 mg/ml (p < 0.05). At PCW, all spirometry-parameters were markedly reduced: FVC by 41.3+/-16.4% (mean +/-SD); FEV(1) by 44.7+/-14.5%; PEFR by 40.5+/-14.5 and FEF(25–75) by 54.7+/-14.4% (P < 0.01 for all parameters). This reduction was accompanied by de-saturation, hyperpnoea, tachycardia and a response to bronchodilators. CONCLUSION: Determination of PC(20)-FEV(1) by spirometry is feasible in many preschool children. PC(20)-FEV(1) often appears at lower provocation dose than PCW. The lower dose may shorten the test and encourage participation. Significant decrease in spirometry indices at PCW suggests that PC(20)-FEV(1) determination may be safer

Reducing LPS content in cockroach allergens increases pulmonary cytokine production without increasing inflammation: A randomized laboratory study

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Endotoxins are ubiquitously present in the environment and constitute a significant component of ambient air. These substances have been shown to modulate the allergic response, however a consensus has yet to be reached whether they attenuate or exacerbate asthmatic responses. The current investigation examined whether reducing the concentration of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in a house dust extract (HDE) containing high concentrations of both cockroach allergens <abbrgrp><abbr bid="B1">1</abbr></abbrgrp> and LPS would attenuate asthma-like pulmonary inflammation.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>Mice were sensitized with CRA and challenged with the intact HDE, containing 182 ng of LPS, or an LPS-reduced HDE containing 3 ng LPS, but an equivalent amount of CRA. Multiple parameters of asthma-like pulmonary inflammation were measured.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>Compared to HDE challenged mice, the LPS-reduced HDE challenged mice had significantly reduced TNFα levels in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. Plasma levels of IgE and IgG1 were significantly reduced, however no change in CRA-specific IgE was detected. In HDE mice, plasma IgG2a levels were similar to naïve mice, while LPS-reduced HDE mice had significantly greater concentrations. Reduced levels of LPS in the HDE did not decrease eosinophil or neutrophil recruitment into the alveolar space. Equivalent inflammatory cell recruitment occurred despite having generally higher pulmonary concentrations of eotaxins and CXC chemokines in the LPS-reduced HDE group. LPS-reduced HDE challenge induced significantly higher concentrations of IFNγ, and IL-5 and IL-13 in the BAL fluid, but did not decrease airways hyperresponsiveness or airway resistance to methacholine challenge. <it>Conclusion: </it>These data show that reduction of LPS levels in the HDE does not significantly protect against the severity of asthma-like pulmonary inflammation.</p

Tumor necrosis factor receptor 2 contributes to ozone-induced airway hyperresponsiveness in mice

The purpose of this study was to determine whether tumor necrosis factor (TNF) contributes to airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR) and migration of polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMN) into the airways following exposure to ozone (03). Wild-type mice, TNF p55 or p75 receptor knockout mice (p55 TNFR -/- and p75 TNFR -/-), as well as double receptor knockout mice (p55/p75 TNFR -/-), were exposed to O3. Three hours after cessation of O3, airway responses to inhaled methacholine were determined by whole body plethysmography using changes in enhanced pause (Penh) as an index of airway narrowing. In wild-type mice, O3 exposure (0.5 ppm, 3 h) caused a significant increase in airway responsiveness as indicated by a 1.2 log leftward shift in the methacholine dose-response curve. In contrast, in p55/p75 TNFR -/- mice, O3 caused only a 0.5 log shift in the dose-response curve (p &lt; 0.05 compared with wild-type). Similar results were obtained in p75 TNFR -/mice. In contrast, O3-induced airway hyperresponsiveness was not different in WT and p55 TNFR -/- mice. During O3 exposure (1 pm, 3 h), minute ventilation (V̇e) decreased by 64 ± 4% in wild-type, but only 24 ± 5% in p55/p75 TNFR -/- mice, indicating that despite their reduced O3-induced AHR, the TNFR-deficient mice actually inhaled a greater dose of O3. Similar results were obtained in p75 -/- mice, whereas changes in V̇e induced by O3 were the same in wild-type and p55 -/- mice. PMN numbers in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid recovered 21 h after cessation of exposure to O3 (2 ppm, 3 h) were significantly increased compared with after air exposure but were not different in wild-type and p55/p75 TNFR -/- mice. Our results indicate that TNF contributes to the AHR but not the PMN emigration induced by acute O3 exposure

Variabilidade genética em genes do complexo principal de histocompatibilidade (DRB e DQA) em populações de Ctenomys flamarioni (Rodentia - Ctenomyidae), implicações em conservação

Ctenomys flamarioni é um roedor subterrâneo endêmico do litoral do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul - Brasil. Devido à sua distribuição restrita ao ambiente costeiro, que está em constante mudança, e à fragmentação e destruição do habitat, devido à ação humana, essa espécie está nas listas de fauna ameaçadas de extinção. Estudos anteriores, com marcadores microssatélites e DNA mitocondrial, identificaram a baixa variabilidade genética na espécie, por outro lado, o estudo de loci que se esperam estar sob seleção seria uma ferramenta importante para identificar a relação dos indivíduos com o ambiente e os processos que moldaram a variabilidade genética da espécie ao longo da história. O Complexo Principal de Histocompatibilidade (MHC) é composto por um grupo de genes estreitamente ligados que constituem o componente genético mais importante do sistema imunológico dos mamíferos. Dois principais mecanismos têm sido descritos como responsáveis pela manuntenção da diversidade do MHC e estão relacionados com o combate de parasitas e com mecanismos reprodutivos, que evitam o endocruzamento. Nesse estudo investigamos a variabilidade genética dos loci DRB e DQA do MHC e comparamos os índices de diversidades com os valores encontrados em estudos com outros ctenomídeos e com os encontrados para loci neutros da mesma espécie. A diversidade genética para o locus DRB de C. flamarioni foi menor do que a encontrada em estudos para o mesmo locus em outras espécies do gênero e também foi menor do que a encontrada em estudos para a mesma espécie, com marcadores neutros, inclusive para populações que passaram por reduções recentes (gargalos-de-garrafa). Os resultados indicam que a seleção balanceadora não foi suficiente para manter a diversidade genética nas populações estudadas e que as reduções populacionais, identificadas através dos loci neutros, devem ter sido bastante drásticas, por afetarem também a diversidade de um locus conhecidamente bastante variável (DRB de MHC). Não pudemos avaliar a diversidade do locus DQA devido a alta incidência de sequências muito divergentes encontradas, possivelmente pseudogenes. O estado de conservação de Ctenomys flamarioni é considerado crítico, por todos os fatores que afetam a espécie, como a instabilidade do ambiente em que ocorrem, a fragmentação e destruição do habitat pela ação humana e pela sua baixa diversidade genética, especialmente em um locus importante do sistema imunológico. A perda da diversidade no locus de MHC poderia estar relacionada à diminuição do número de indivíduos por população, que aumenta o risco de endogamia, que por sua vez pode levar à perda da aptidão reprodutiva, expressão de alelos recessivos deletérios e perda da flexibilidade adaptativa. Além disso, a perda da diversidade em um locus importante para a defesa do organismo contra parasitas aumenta a suscetibilidade dos indivíduos a doenças, e todos esses fatores elevam o risco de extinções locais, colocando em perigo o futuro da espécie.Ctenomys flamarioni is a subterranean rodent, endemic to the coastline of the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. Due to its strict distribution to the coastal environment, which is constantly changing, and to habitat fragmentation and destruction caused by human actions, this species appears in lists of threatened fauna. Previous studies, using microsatellite markers and mitochondrial DNA, identified the low genetic variability in this species. On the other hand, the study of loci that are expected to be under balancing selection would be an important tool to identify the relation between individuals and their environment and processes which have molded the genetic variability of this species throughout history. The Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) is comprised by a closely connected group of genes that constitute the most important genetic component of the immune system of mammals. Two main mechanisms have been described as responsible for maintaining MHC diversity and are associated with parasite combat and reproductive mechanisms for inbreeding avoidance. In this study we investigated the genetic variability of the DRB and DQA loci of the MHC and compared these diversity indices with values found in studies about other ctenomyids and with values found for neutral loci in this species. The genetic diversity for the DRB locus in C. flamarioni was lower than what is found for the same locus in other species of the same genus and it was also lower than what was found in studies with this species using neutral markers, especially in populations which have gone through recent size reductions (bottlenecks). The results indicate that the balancing selection was not sufficient to maintain the genetic diversity in the studied populations and that population size reductions, identified through neutral loci, must have been very drastic, since they also affected the diversity of a loci which is known to be highly variable (DRB of the MHC). We could not evaluate the diversity for the DQA loci due to high incidence of very divergent sequences, possibly pseudogenes. The status of conservation of this species is considered critical due to all the factors that affect the species, such as the instability of the environment on which it occurs, habitat fragmentation and destruction caused by human actions, and its low genetic diversity, especially in an important locus of the immune system. The loss of diversity in the MHC locus could be associated to the decrease in number of individuals per population, which increases the risk of endogamy which, in turn, can lead to the loss of reproductive fitness, expression of deleterious recessive alleles and loss of adaptive flexibility. Moreover, the loss of diversity in a locus which is important in the defense of the organism against parasites increases the susceptibility of the individuals to diseases, and all these factors raise the risk of local extinctions, endangering the future of the species