Diplomacia y humanismo: el embajador Jean Nicot y la rivalidad marítima franco-portuguesa (1559-1561)

This article aims to re-examine Jean Nicot’s embassy to Portugal, by using his correspondence. I attempt to show that the main episodes in this maritime rivalry during Nicot’s tenure are intrinsically connected with the ambassador’s acquisition of Portuguese maritime knowledge. I also suggest the connection between the information transmitted by Nicot from Lisbon with his work as a translator and disseminator of Portuguese knowledge after his resettling in France. Nicot’s embassy is compared with those of other French and Spanish ambassadors.Este artículo pretende reexaminar la embajada de Jean Nicot en Portugal, usando su correspondencia. Se demuestra que los principales episodios de esta rivalidad marítima durante el mandato de Nicot están relacionados con la adquisición por parte del embajador del conocimiento marítimo portugués. También se argumenta la conexión entre la transmisión de información por Nicot desde Lisboa con su labor como traductor y divulgador del conocimiento portugués tras su reasentamiento en Francia. Se compara la embajada de Nicot con la de otros embajadores franceses y españoles

Hydraulic Fracturing & Water Stress: Growing Competitive Pressures for Water

This Ceres research paper analyzes water use in hydraulic fracturing operations across the United States and the extent to which this activity is taking place in water stressed regions. It provides an overview of efforts underway, such as the use of recycled water and nonfreshwaterresources, to mitigate these impacts and suggests key questions that industry, water managers and investors should be asking. The research is based on well data available at FracFocus.org and water stress indicator maps developed by the World Resources Institute.FracFocus data was collected for more than 25,000 tight oil (sometimes referred to as shaleoil) and shale gas wells in operation from January 2011 through September 2012. The research shows that 65.8 billion gallons of water was used, representing the water use of 2.5 million Americans for a year. Nearly half (47 percent) of the wells were developed in water basinswith high or extremely high water stress. In Colorado, 92 percent of the 3,862 wells were inextremely high water stress areas. In Texas, which accounts for nearly half of the total number of wells analyzed, 5,891 of its 11,634 wells (51 percent) were in high or extremely high waterstress areas. Extremely high water stress means over 80 percent of available water is already being withdrawn for municipal, industrial and agricultural uses.The research paper provides valuable insights about potential water use/water supply conflicts and risks, especially in basins with intense hydraulic fracturing activity and water supply constraints (due to water stress and/or drought). Given projected sharp increases in production in the coming years and the potentially intense nature of local water demands,competition and conflicts over water should be a growing concern for companies, policymakers and investors. Prolonged drought conditions in many parts of Texas and Colorado last summer created increased competition and conflict between farmers, communities and energy developers, which is only likely to continue. In areas such as Colorado and North Dakota,industry has been able to secure water supplies by paying a higher premium for water thanother users or by getting temporary permits. Neither of these practices can be guaranteed to work in the future, however. Even in wetter regions of the northeast United States, dozens of water permits granted to operators had to be withdrawn last summer due to low levels in environmentally vulnerable headwater streams.The bottom line: shale energy development cannot grow without water, but in order to do so the industry's water needs and impacts need to be better understood, measured and managed. A key question investors should be asking is whether water management planning is getting sufficient attention from both industry and regulators

Effects of heating process of soybeans on ruminal production of conjugated linoleic acids and trans-octadecenoic acids in situ

The effects of two thermal treatments of soybeans, i.e. roasting (150˚C dry heat) and extrusion (140-150˚C), on conjugated linoleic acids (CLA) and trans-octadecenoic acids (trans-C18:1) productions obtained throughout ruminal C18:2 biohydrogenation in cows were examined. Nylon bags containing raw, roasted or extruded soybeans were incubated in the rumen of dry fistulated cows, during 2, 4, 8, 16 or 24 hours. After incubation of 2-4 h, significantly greater amounts of linoleic acid (C18:2) remained in bags containing extruded and roasted soybeans than in those with raw soybeans, reflecting a lower biohydrogenation of C18:2 in both case. Furthermore, significant and marked accumulations of CLA and trans-C18:1 at a lesser extend were noticed in bags containing extruded soybeans compared to those with raw or roasted soybeans. By calculations of the efficiencies of the three reactions, an inhibition of the C18:2 isomerisation was evidenced with extruded and roasted soybeans, as well as an inhibition of the two reduction steps in presence of extruded soybeans. Consequently, the thermal treatment and the nature of heating process of fat are efficient ways to modulate the CLA and trans-C18:1 ruminal productions

Cis-15 intermediates of biohydrogenation in the duodenal flow of cows receiving linseed

Duodenal samples from a previous experiment (Akraim et al., 2006) were reanalysed for determination of cis-15 intermediates of ruminal biohydrogenation (BH). Three dry Holstein cows fitted with a duodenal cannula received a diet with 14% (dry matter basis) raw linseed. C18 fatty acids (C18FA) represented 6.3% of dietary dry matter, and contained 57.8% of C18:3. After 18 days adaptation, on each cow, twelve samples of duodenal flow were taken over 3 days, composited, and analysed for FA composition. Cis-9,trans-11,cis-15C18:3 and trans-11,cis-15C18:2 (CLnA) were identified by GC-MS. The proportion of CLnA was low, in spite of the high C18:3 intake. The first step of C18:3 BH, isomerisation to CLnA, was extensive because the C18:3 proportion was 13.5 times lower in the duodenum than in the diet (Akraim et al., 2006). The extensive C18:3 BH and the low proportion of CLnA suggest a rapid ruminal reduction of this FA. The proportion of the product of this first reduction, trans-11,cis-15C18:2, was much higher than that of CLnA, but quite variable among cows. This suggests that the reduction of this FA was slower than that of CLnA, although this reduction is supposed to be due to a broad range of bacteria. According to responsible bacteria, this reduction can lead to trans-11C18:1, or cis-15C18:1 and trans-15C18:1. Cis-15C18:1 represented only half the proportion of trans-15C18:1, suggesting either a direct BH of trans-11,cis-15C18:2 to trans-15C18:1, or a rapid isomerisation of cis-15C18:1 to trans-15C18:1

Effects of peripartum biotin supplementation of dairy cows on milk production and milk composition with emphasis on fatty acids profile

Forty Holstein dairy cows receiving a 38% concentrate diet based on maize silage were assigned to either a control group, either a biotin group, receiving 20 mg of biotin per day from 15 days before expected calving date and for 120 days after calving. Milk production was measured daily, milk fat content, protein content, urea and somatic cell counts were determined weekly from week 2 to week 17 of lactation. The profile of milk fatty acids was determined at weeks 3 and 10. Plasma glucose and blood betahydroxybutyrate were determined before calving and at weeks 1, 2, 3, 5, 7 and 10 of lactation. Biotin supplementation resulted in an increased milk production in multiparous cows during weeks 2 to 6, but the effect was no more significant between 7 and 17 weeks of lactation. Milk protein percent was decreased by 0.1% in multiparous cows. Milk fat content was not affected by biotin, and milk fat daily production tended to increase during early lactation. In milk fat, biotin supplementation tended to decrease the proportion of fatty acids with less than 16 carbons at week 3, but the daily amount was not affected. Biotin tended to decrease biohydrogenation intermediates, increased C16:1 at week 3, and tended to increase cis-9 C18:1 at weeks 3 and 10. After 7 weeks of lactation, biotin tended to increase blood beta-hydroxybutyrate in multiparous cows with values remaining in a normal range, and decreased plasma glucose in primiparous cows. These modifications of plasma parameters, milk protein content and profile of milk fatty acids could be due to a higher lipid mobilisation from adipose tissue driven by the increased milk production

Conclusions and perspectives: Perspectives for future research-and-development projects on biological

The review of published scientific literature on the biological control of selected pests and diseases has lead to the identification of clear knowledge gaps highlighted in previous chapters. Further bottlenecks were revealed by seeking the possible reasons for the striking discrepancy between the rich inventory of potential biocontrol agents described by scientists and a very small number of commercial products on the market. To complement these analyses, the participants of Research Activity 4.3 of the European Network ENDURE organized consultations of experts (scientists, extension specialists and representatives of the Biocontrol industry) at the occasion of scientific meetings of three Working Groups of IOBC-wpr

Effects of induced acidosis on milk fat content and milk fatty acids profile

Objective: The effect of wheat percentage in diets offered to lactating cows on variations of milk fat content and profile of milk fatty acids (FA) was studied, focusing on odd-chain FA and trans intermediates of ruminal biohydrogenation. Materials and methods: Two cows equipped with a ruminal canula successively received diets based on maize silage, and comprising 0, 20, 34 and again 0% wheat on a dry matter basis. Each diet was used during 12 days. The diet was distributed in two equal meals at 08:00 and 17:00, and wheat was top-dressed on silage. Milk samples were taken at the evening milking, and samples of ruminal contents were taken hourly from 08:00 to 16:00 on days 10 and 11 in the first period, and on days 5, 10 and 11 in the 3 subsequent periods. Results and discussion: Compared with the initial control, after 10 days adaptation, diet with 20% wheat significantly lowered mean ruminal pH (6.03 vs 6.77) and milk fat content (33.0 vs 44.1), and significantly increased the percentage of odd-chain FA in milk fat (2.38 vs 1.48). The trans-10C18:1 / trans-11C18:1 ratio increased from 0.34 to 0.82, but the difference was not significant. After 10 days adaptation, the diet with 34% wheat resulted in low ruminal pH (5.8), low milk fat content (22.4), and high percentage of odd-chain FA (3.03) and high trans-10C18:1 / trans-11C18:1 ratio (12.2). All these values were significantly different from both initial values and values observed with 20% wheat. After 10 days with the control diet following acidogenic diets, mean ruminal pH and milk fat content returned near initial value (6.98 and 41.1, respectively), but odd-chain FA and the trans-10C18:1 / trans-11C18:1 ratio (1.80 and 2.14, respectively) remained significantly higher than initial values. This suggests that the effects of a ruminal acidosis can remain a long time after returning to a non-acidogenic diet. Values observed after 5 days adaptation to the three diets were intermediate between values at the end of the previous period and values after 10 days adaptation, and significantly different from values after 10 days adaptation for all presented parameters except the trans-10C18:1 / trans-11C18:1 ratio (P = 0.25). The correlation coefficients between mean ruminal pH and milk fat content, proportion of odd-chain FA and the trans-10C18:1 / trans-11C18:1 ratio were significant (0.84, ־0.87 and ־0.62, respectively). However, this low latter value was due to a weak relationship when pH was over 6.2, and a large increase of the trans-10C18:1 / trans-11C18:1 ratio when mean ruminal pH was under 6.2. These results are consistent with present knowledge on trans-10 FA as a result of low ruminal pH and a cause of low milk fat content. They show that the trans-10C18:1 / trans-11C18:1 ratio can exhibit very large variations when the mean ruminal pH is under 6.2. Conclusion and perspective: Induced acidosis resulted in lowered milk fat content, and higher proportion of odd-chain FA and a higher trans-10C18:1 / trans-11C18:1 ratio. Milk fat content and proportion of odd-chain FA were linearly related to mean ruminal pH. On the contrary, trans-10C18:1 / trans-11C18:1 ratio only exhibited variations when mean ruminal pH was low, and these variations were in a large range, making this ratio a possible candidate for biochemical characterisation of acidosis

Comparison of enzymatic activities of the reactions of linoleic and linolenic acids ruminal biohydrogenation

Introduction: Biohydrogenation (BH) is a microbial hydrogenation of dietary unsaturated fatty acids occurring in the rumen. BH is of interest because it directly affects the fatty acids composition of milk and meat. The linoleic acid (C18:2) BH is divided into three reactions: isomerisation into conjugated linoleic acids (CLA), reduction to trans-C18:1 and then to stearic acid (C18:0); that of alpha-linolenic acid (C18:3) into four reactions: isomerisation to conjugated linolenic acid (CLnA), reduction to trans11,cis15-C18:2, then to trans-C18:1 and finally to C18:0. The aim of this study was to compare enzymatic activities of the reactions of C18:2 BH to those of C18:3 BH. Materials and methods: Rumen fluid was collected from a dry dairy cow and strained on a metal sieve (1,6mm). Then, it was mixed with Chloramphenicol (Cm), an inhibitor of protein synthesis in prokaryotes, at a dose of 1mg/mL . Incubations were prepared by adding 1mL of rumen fluid + Cm, with 1mL of bicarbonate buffer and 1mg of C18:2 or C18:3 (purity ≥ 99%, Sigma), and were conducted in a waterbath at 39°C, with 3h agitation, in 3 replicates. Fatty acids were quantified by gas chromatography. Then rate (v, mg/L/h) and efficiency (E, %) of the reactions were calculated. Results and Discussion: The isomerisation of C18:3 was quicker and more efficient than that of C18:2, which was probably saturated2 (v = 129.6 vs. 94.4 mg/L/h; E = 80.2 vs. 52.7%, respectively. The reductions of conjugated isomers were rapid and efficient, mainly for CLnA (v = 123.7 mg/L/h; E= 95.5%) compared to CLA (v = 78.1 mg/L/h; E= 82.0%). However, for C18:2 BH, cis9,trans11-CLA disappeared quicker than trans10,cis12-CLA so that their respective production after 3h incubation was +0.016mg vs. +0.073mg. The last reduction of C18:2 BH was the slowest (v = 63.8 mg/L/h; E= 68.9%), and constituted the limiting step, resulting in trans-C18:1 accumulation. The second reduction of C18:3 BH was very slow and poorly efficient (v = 48.8 mg/L/h; E= 38.2%), so that trans11,cis15-C18:2 highly accumulated (+0.450mg produced). The last reduction of C18:3 BH was also a slow and poorly efficient reaction (v = 38.8 mg/L/h; E= 41.9%), so that trans-C18:1 would probably have accumulated with a longer incubation. Conclusion: The BH of C18:2 and C18:3 were not exactly similar. C18:2 BH was slower, its isomerisation seemed to be rapidly saturable and the limiting step was the final reduction inducing an accumulation of trans-C18:1. For C18:3 BH, first and second reactions were rapid, so that few CLnA was present in the media. Contrarily, the third and fourth reactions were slow so that trans11,cis15-C18:2 firstly accumulated. Such an evolution was previously reported in vitro with live mixed ruminal bacteria2, indicating that the evaluation of BH does not require live bacteria, and confirming the validity and interest of this enzymatic approach