Social learning in the real-world : ‘over-imitation’ occurs in both children and adults unaware of participation in an experiment and independently of social interaction

The writing of this paper was supported by the John Templeton Foundation (grant ID 40128).The current study avoided the typical laboratory context to determine instead whether over-imitation—the disposition to copy even visibly, causally unnecessary actions—occurs in a real-world context in which participants are unaware of being in an experiment. We disguised a puzzle-box task as an interactive item available to the public within a science engagement zone of Edinburgh Zoo. As a member of the public approached, a confederate acting as a zoo visitor retrieved a reward from the box using a sequence of actions containing both causally relevant and irrelevant elements. Despite the absence of intentional demonstration, or social pressure to copy, a majority of both child and even adult observers included all causally irrelevant actions in their reproduction. This occurred even though causal irrelevance appeared manifest because of the transparency of the puzzle-box. That over-imitation occurred so readily in a naturalistic context, devoid of social interaction and pressure, suggests that humans are opportunistic social learners throughout the lifespan, copying the actions of other individuals even when these actions are not intentionally demonstrated, and their causal significance is not readily apparent. The disposition to copy comprehensively, even when a mere onlooker, likely provides humans, irrespective of their age, with a powerful mechanism to extract maximal information from the social environment.Publisher PDFPeer reviewe

Constitutional dynamics and partisan conflict:A comparative assessment of multi-level systems in Europe

publication-status: Publishedtypes: ArticleThe case studies revealed that the constitutional nature of a multi-level system indeed shapes its modes of day-to-day intergovernmental coordination and, with it, the way competences are (re)allocated in the longer term. Both in federal arrangements and in confederations, the ‘subunits’ – whose status is constitutionally protected – could more easily defend their decision-making capacity within their areas of jurisdiction because they can veto changes in the allocation of competences, an advantage lower-level governments in regionalized systems do not enjoy. Similarly, in federal and confederal systems day-to-day interaction in Inter Governmental Relations (IGR) predominantly took place in multilateral structures, while in regionalized systems bilateralism was more pronounced. The relative influence of party-political (in)congruence on IGR, in contrast, was more varied than theoretically expected

"A Theoretical Perspective on Multi-level Systems in Europe: Constitutional Power and Partisan Conflict"

types: ArticleThis article distinguishes three constitutionally defined categories of multi-level systems – confederations, federal arrangements and regionalized arrangements, which differ in whether their lower-level governments enjoy constitutional protection and whether we find a constitutional hierarchy between central and lower levels of government. We argue that the constitutional category a multi-level system belongs to systematically shapes first, the dominant mode of day-to-day intergovernmental coordination, second, the mode of formal competence (re)allocation; and third, the relative impact of party (in)congruence across central and lower-level governments on these coordination processes, respectively. The article then specifies the indicators used to test the hypotheses across the range of case studies. It finally shows how the multi-level systems covered in this special issue span the confederal – federal – regionalized spectrum and thus allow for an encompassing comparative assessment of multi-level dynamics and their long-term evolution.ESR

Rhodium(III)-Catalyzed C–H Activation/Annulation with Vinyl Esters as an Acetylene Equivalent

The behavior of electron-rich alkenes in rhodium-catalyzed C–H activation/annulation reactions is investigated. Vinyl acetate emerges as a convenient acetylene equivalent, facilitating the synthesis of sixteen 3,4-unsubstituted isoquinolones, as well as select heteroaryl-fused pyridones. The complementary regiochemical preferences of enol ethers versus enol esters/enamides is discussed

Percentage number of participants in each age group who dragged or pushed the bolts as a function of technique witnessed.

<p>Percentage number of participants in each age group who dragged or pushed the bolts as a function of technique witnessed.</p

The ‘model’ demonstrates a series of actions, some of which are irrelevant to goal retrieval (removing bolt defence, inserting tool into top hole), and some which are relevant to goal retrieval (removing door defence, inserting tool into lower hole).

<p>These actions are illustrated above: (a) dragging bolt; (b) causally irrelevant tool insertion into top hole; (c) causally relevant tool insertion into front hole.</p

Illustration of the experimental set-up in the Science Exploration Zone of Living Links.

<p>Experimenter 2 acting in the role of a zoo visitor (A) observes Experimenter 1 (B) manipulating the experimental puzzle box (D). The puzzle box is situated amongst other interactive activities (C) available for the public to explore.</p