Suicide: moving away umbrage towards a National Prevention Plan

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Philanthropic general hospitals: a new setting for psychiatric admissions

OBJECTIVE: To understand the process that led Brazilian philanthropic general hospitals to implement psychiatric units and to describe the main characteristics and therapeutic approaches of these services. METHODS: Ten institutions in three Brazilian states (Minas Gerais, São Paulo e Santa Catarina) were assessed in 2002. Forty-three semi-structured interviews were carried out with health professionals who worked at the hospitals to collect data on service implementation process, therapeutic approaches and current situation. The interviews were audio-recorded and their content was analyzed. RESULTS: There was no mental hospital in the cities where the institutions were located. In five hospitals, psychiatric patients were admitted to general medical wards because there was no psychiatric unit. The therapeutic approach in six hospitals was based on psychopharmacological treatment. Due to lack of resources and more appropriate therapeutic planning, the admission of patients presenting psychomotor agitation increases resistance against psychiatric patients in general hospitals. Financial constraints regarding laboratory testing is still a challenge. There is no exchange between local authorities and hospital administrators of these institutions that are compelled to exceed the allowed number of admissions to meet the demand of neighboring cities. CONCLUSIONS: The need for mental health care to local populations combined with individual requests of local authorities and psychiatrists made possible the implementation of psychiatric units in these localities. In spite of the efforts and flexibility of health professional working in these institutions, there are some obstacles to be overcome: resistance of hospital community against psychiatric admissions, financial constraints, limited professional training in mental health and the lack of a therapeutic approach that goes beyond psychopharmacological treatment alone.OBJETIVO: Estudar o processo de instalação de enfermarias de psiquiatria em hospitais gerais filantrópicos e descrever suas características e práticas terapêuticas. MÉTODOS: Foram selecionadas 10 instituições em cidades dos Estados de Minas Gerais, São Paulo e Santa Catarina, no ano de 2002. Realizaram-se 43 entrevistas semi-estruturadas, no mínimo três em cada instituição, com profissionais de saúde, baseadas nos seguintes eixos temáticos: processo de instalação do serviço, modelo terapêutico e situação atual. As entrevistas foram gravadas em áudio, transcritas e submetidas a análise de conteúdo. RESULTADOS: As instituições localizam-se em cidades onde não havia hospitais psiquiátricos. Cinco hospitais reservam leitos para pacientes psiquiátricos em enfermarias de clínica médica. Em seis instituições, a proposta terapêutica centra-se numa abordagem farmacológica. Na falta de recursos e de planejamento terapêutico, a internação de pacientes mais agitados aumenta a resistência da comunidade hospitalar. As restrições relativas à realização de exames complementares, quando da internação psiquiátrica, constituem outra barreira a ser superada. Falta intercâmbio entre autoridades e direções dessas instituições, obrigadas a exceder quotas de internação devido à demanda de cidades vizinhas. CONCLUSÕES: Na instalação das enfermarias de psiquiatria em hospitais gerais filantrópicos houve a confluência de demanda local com vontades individuais. Apesar do evidente empenho e flexibilidade dos profissionais, ainda não se pode falar em consolidação desses serviços diante das várias dificuldades a serem superadas: resistência local à internação psiquiátrica, restrições econômicas, capacitação profissional deficitária e ausência de um modelo terapêutico que vá além da abordagem farmacológica.1042104

[philanthropic General Hospitals: A New Setting For Psychiatric Admissions].

To understand the process that led Brazilian philanthropic general hospitals to implement psychiatric units and to describe the main characteristics and therapeutic approaches of these services. Ten institutions in three Brazilian states (Minas Gerais, São Paulo e Santa Catarina) were assessed in 2002. Forty-three semi-structured interviews were carried out with health professionals who worked at the hospitals to collect data on service implementation process, therapeutic approaches and current situation. The interviews were audio-recorded and their content was analyzed. There was no mental hospital in the cities where the institutions were located. In five hospitals, psychiatric patients were admitted to general medical wards because there was no psychiatric unit. The therapeutic approach in six hospitals was based on psychopharmacological treatment. Due to lack of resources and more appropriate therapeutic planning, the admission of patients presenting psychomotor agitation increases resistance against psychiatric patients in general hospitals. Financial constraints regarding laboratory testing is still a challenge. There is no exchange between local authorities and hospital administrators of these institutions that are compelled to exceed the allowed number of admissions to meet the demand of neighboring cities. The need for mental health care to local populations combined with individual requests of local authorities and psychiatrists made possible the implementation of psychiatric units in these localities. In spite of the efforts and flexibility of health professional working in these institutions, there are some obstacles to be overcome: resistance of hospital community against psychiatric admissions, financial constraints, limited professional training in mental health and the lack of a therapeutic approach that goes beyond psychopharmacological treatment alone.401042-

Hospitais gerais filantrópicos: novo espaço para a internação psiquiátrica

OBJECTIVE: To understand the process that led Brazilian philanthropic general hospitals to implement psychiatric units and to describe the main characteristics and therapeutic approaches of these services. METHODS: Ten institutions in three Brazilian states (Minas Gerais, São Paulo e Santa Catarina) were assessed in 2002. Forty-three semi-structured interviews were carried out with health professionals who worked at the hospitals to collect data on service implementation process, therapeutic approaches and current situation. The interviews were audio-recorded and their content was analyzed. RESULTS: There was no mental hospital in the cities where the institutions were located. In five hospitals, psychiatric patients were admitted to general medical wards because there was no psychiatric unit. The therapeutic approach in six hospitals was based on psychopharmacological treatment. Due to lack of resources and more appropriate therapeutic planning, the admission of patients presenting psychomotor agitation increases resistance against psychiatric patients in general hospitals. Financial constraints regarding laboratory testing is still a challenge. There is no exchange between local authorities and hospital administrators of these institutions that are compelled to exceed the allowed number of admissions to meet the demand of neighboring cities. CONCLUSIONS: The need for mental health care to local populations combined with individual requests of local authorities and psychiatrists made possible the implementation of psychiatric units in these localities. In spite of the efforts and flexibility of health professional working in these institutions, there are some obstacles to be overcome: resistance of hospital community against psychiatric admissions, financial constraints, limited professional training in mental health and the lack of a therapeutic approach that goes beyond psychopharmacological treatment alone.OBJETIVO: Estudar o processo de instalação de enfermarias de psiquiatria em hospitais gerais filantrópicos e descrever suas características e práticas terapêuticas. MÉTODOS: Foram selecionadas 10 instituições em cidades dos Estados de Minas Gerais, São Paulo e Santa Catarina, no ano de 2002. Realizaram-se 43 entrevistas semi-estruturadas, no mínimo três em cada instituição, com profissionais de saúde, baseadas nos seguintes eixos temáticos: processo de instalação do serviço, modelo terapêutico e situação atual. As entrevistas foram gravadas em áudio, transcritas e submetidas a análise de conteúdo. RESULTADOS: As instituições localizam-se em cidades onde não havia hospitais psiquiátricos. Cinco hospitais reservam leitos para pacientes psiquiátricos em enfermarias de clínica médica. Em seis instituições, a proposta terapêutica centra-se numa abordagem farmacológica. Na falta de recursos e de planejamento terapêutico, a internação de pacientes mais agitados aumenta a resistência da comunidade hospitalar. As restrições relativas à realização de exames complementares, quando da internação psiquiátrica, constituem outra barreira a ser superada. Falta intercâmbio entre autoridades e direções dessas instituições, obrigadas a exceder quotas de internação devido à demanda de cidades vizinhas. CONCLUSÕES: Na instalação das enfermarias de psiquiatria em hospitais gerais filantrópicos houve a confluência de demanda local com vontades individuais. Apesar do evidente empenho e flexibilidade dos profissionais, ainda não se pode falar em consolidação desses serviços diante das várias dificuldades a serem superadas: resistência local à internação psiquiátrica, restrições econômicas, capacitação profissional deficitária e ausência de um modelo terapêutico que vá além da abordagem farmacológica

Detecting suicide risk at psychiatric emergency services

OBJETIVO: Auxiliar o profissional de saúde na identificação dos fatores de risco e de proteção, e no manejo de pacientes com risco de suicídio, por meio de entrevista clinica, no contexto de emergência médica. MÉTODO: Revisão seletiva da literatura para identificar achados clínicos relevantes e ilustrativos. RESULTADO: A entrevista clinica é o melhor método para avaliar o risco suicida e tem dois objetivos: 1) apoio emocional e de estabelecimento de vínculo; 2) coleta de informações. Existe um número considerável de informações a serem coletadas durante a entrevista: fatores de risco e proteção (predisponentes e precipitantes), dados epidemiológicos, caracterização do ato, aspectos psicodinâmicos, antecedentes pessoais e familiares, modelos de identificação, dados sobre saúde física e rede de apoio social. Dificuldades ao longo da entrevista serão encontradas, mas com conhecimento e treinamento adequado, o profissional poderá abordar e ajudar adequadamente o paciente. Embora várias escalas tenham sido propostas, nenhuma delas demonstrou eficiência para a detecção de risco de suicídio. CONCLUSÃO: Não há como prever quem cometerá suicídio, mas é possível avaliar o risco individual que cada paciente apresenta, tendo em vista a investigação detalhada e empática da entrevista clinica. Impedir que o paciente venha a se matar é regra preliminar e fundamental.OBJECTIVE: Guide the health professional to identify risk factors and forms of protection, together with handling such patient throughout a clinical interview within the emergency service context. METHOD: Selected literature revision so as to identify relevant and illustrative key cases. RESULTS: The clinical interview is the best method to evaluate the suicidal risk and has two different aims: 1) emotional support and creation of a bond; 2) collecting information. There is a substantial amount of information to be collected during the clinical interview, such as: risk factors and protection, epidemiologic data, act characterization, psychical dynamics aspects, personal and familial historic patterns, identification models, data on physical wealth and social net support. Difficulties are to emerge throughout the clinical interview, but a trained and informed professional will be able to approach and adequately add the patient. Although several scales have been proposed, none of them have been efficient to deter the suicidal risk. CONCLUSION: There is no method to predict who is to commit suicide, nevertheless, it is possible to evaluate the individual risk of each patient with regards to a detailed and empathic clinical interview. Prevent the patient to commit suicide is the preliminary and fundamental rule

Comunicação entre médicos e mulheres na prevenção das infecções do trato reprodutivo: algumas limitações

The objective of this study was to describe the information that women with tubal infertility recalled having received from physicians when they consulted for a reproductive tract infection (RTI) and the information physicians reported having provided to women consulting for RTIs. Interviews were conducted with 16 women presenting primary tubal infertility selected on the basis of purposeful sampling criteria. Also, 15 physicians working in the public health network in the city of Campinas, Brazil, were selected at random and interviewed. Analysis of the women's statements concerning previous RTI-related medical consultations showed that they did not recall having received any information on either prevention or the impact of RTI on their reproductive future. Analysis of interviews with physicians showed that the information they provided to women consulting for RTIs was incomplete and unclear. The information women recalled having received and that which physicians remembered having provided at the time of treating a patient with RTI was similar. In conclusion, these women lacked adequate or complete information and that it was probably not possible for them to adopt measures to avoid repetition of RTI and minimize risk of tubal infertility.O objetivo deste estudo foi descrever a informação que mulheres com esterilidade tubária lembravam haver recebido dos médicos quando elas compareceram à consulta em virtude de infeções do trato reprodutivo (ITR), assim como a informação que os médicos referiram dar-lhes no momento da consulta. Foram entrevistadas 16 mulheres com esterilidade primária de causa tubária, selecionadas seguindo o critério de amostra proposital. Foram selecionados ao acaso e entrevistados 15 médicos da rede pública de Campinas, SP, Brasil. A análise das respostas das mulheres mostrou que elas não lembravam de ter recebido informação a respeito de meios de prevenção ou sobre o impacto das ITRs em seu futuro reprodutivo. A análise das entrevistas com os médicos revelou que a informação que eles declararam prover às mulheres em questão sobre as formas de transmissão, os riscos para o futuro reprodutivo e meios de prevenção foi incompleta ou pouco clara. A informação que as consulentes lembravam haver recebido e a que os médicos referiram dar sobre as ITR foi similar. Em conclusão, essas mulheres não receberam informação adequada ou completa, e provavelmente não foi possível que implementassem meios de prevenção para evitar a repetição de ITR e minimizar o risco de esterilidade tubária.24925

Chronic Use Of Diazepam In Primary Healthcare Centers: User Profile And Usage Pattern.

Chronic use of benzodiazepines is frequent in general practice. The aim of this study was to describe the usage pattern and profile of chronic users of diazepam who had been consuming this drug for a minimum of thirty-six months continuously. This was a descriptive study (survey and clinical assessment) at five primary healthcare centers in Campinas, Brazil. Psychotropic drug control books revealed 48 eligible patients. Among these, 41 were assessed by means of the Schedule for Clinical Assessment in Neuropsychiatry (SCAN), the Hospital Anxiety and Depression scale (HAD) and a questionnaire on usage pattern. Most patients were women (85.4%). The patients' mean age was 57.6 years, and they were from the social strata C (39%), D (54%) and E (7%). The mean length of diazepam consumption was 10 years. The patients presented a lack of prescription compliance and had made frustrated attempts to stop using the drug. 55.5% said their doctor had never given any guidance on the effects of the drug. According to SCAN, 25 patients (61%) suffered from depressive disorders; only 12 cases of benzodiazepine dependence were detected by this instrument. There is a need to improve the detection and treatment of mental disorders, as well as to prevent inappropriate prescription and use of benzodiazepines. Diazepam dependence has distinctive characteristics that make it undetected by SCAN.125270-

Alcohol-dependence mortality in Brazil: 1998 - 2002

Official statistics were used to analyze mortality rates, from alcohol dependence in Brazil (1998-2002), defined by ICD-10 code F10, from alcohol dependence in Brazil (1998-2002). Male and female mortality rates amounted to 0.8 (4580) and 0.1% (515) respectively, of all deaths. These values corresponded to 83.3% of deaths from mental disorders in men and 34.8% in women. Mean male annual mortality rate in 1998-2002 reached 5.8 deaths/100,000 males. There were differences between ages brackets existed, 45-54-year old men (16.0 deaths/100,000 males) were the most affected. Even though the Brazilian mortality rate is lower than the Canadian one, wonen die younges, 46% of cases among 15-44-year old females. The south-eastern region had the highest male mortality rate in 1998-2002 (6.6 deaths/100,000 men). Underestimation factors of above data are acknowledged. Since mortality rates by alcohol are avoidable, young men from the southeastern region should be a priority target for health promotion and recovery programs.Para analisar a mortalidade por dependência de álcool no Brasil (1998-2002) utilizando-se a causa básica de morte das estatísticas oficias, consideraram-se os óbitos decorrentes de transtornos mentais e comportamentais devidos ao uso de álcool (F10) da Classificação Internacional de Doenças CID-10. Em 2002 ocorreram 4580 óbitos masculinos e 515 femininos por dependência de álcool, correspondendo a 0,8% das mortes masculinas e 0,1% das femininas. Esses valores representaram 83,3% dos óbitos por distúrbios mentais nos homens e 34,8% nas mulheres. O coeficiente médio anual no período 1998-2002 foi de 5,8 óbitos/100.000 homens, com variações por faixa etária, sendo maior entre os de 45 a 54 anos (16,0 óbitos/100.000 homens). Comparando-se o Brasil com o Canadá, essa mortalidade, embora inferior, especialmente nas mulheres, é muito mais precoce; 46% dos casos ocorreram entre 15 e 44 anos. A Região Sudeste apresentou a maior taxa de mortalidade masculina (6,6 óbitos/100.000 homens). Apontam-se os fatores de subestimação da mortalidade neste estudo. Trata-se de óbitos evitáveis e os homens jovens na Região Sudeste são o grupo prioritário na promoção da saúde e programas de recuperação.Para analizar la mortalidad por dependencia de alcohol en el Brasil (1998-2002), utilizándose la causa básica de muerte de las estadísticas oficiales, se consideraron las muertes decurrentes de trastornos mentales y de comportamiento debidos al uso de alcohol (F10) de la Clasificación Internacional de Enfermedades CID-10. En 2002 ocurrieron 4580 muertes masculinas y 515 femeninos por dependencia de alcohol, correspondiendo al 0,8% de las muertes masculinas y al 0,1% de las femeninas. Esos valores representan el 83,3% de las muertes por disturbios mentales en los hombres y el 34,8% en las mujeres. El coeficiente medio anual en el período 1998-2002 fue el de 5,8 muertes/100.000 hombres, con variaciones por gurpo de edad, siendo mayor entre los de 45 a 54 años (16,0 óbitos/100.000 hombres). Comparándose Brasil con Canadá, esa mortalidad, aunque inferior, especialmente en las mujeres, es mucho más precoz; el 46% de los casos ocurren entre 15 y 44 años. La Región Sureste presentó la mayor tasa de mortalidad masculina (6,6 óbitos/100.000 hombres). Se apuntan los factores de subestimación de la mortalidad en este estudio. Se trata de óbitos evitables, y los hombres jóvenes en la Región Sureste son el grupo prioritario en la promoción de salud y programas de recuperación.11512

Evaluation of quality of life of patients submitted to pulmonary resection due to neoplasia

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the health-related quality of life of patients submitted to resection of the pulmonary parenchyma due to neoplasia. METHODS: The Medical Outcomes Study 36-item Short-Form Health Survey was used to evaluate patients in the preoperative period and on postoperative days 30, 90 and 180. We used the GEE statistical model, in which the dependent variable (quality of life) changes for each patient over the course of the evaluation. Independent variables were gender, age, educational level, type of surgery, radiotherapy, chemotherapy, forced vital capacity and 6-minute walk test. The level of significance adopted was 5%. RESULTS: The final study sample comprised 36 patients, 20 of whom were men. Of those 36 patients, 17 were submitted to lobectomy, 10 to pneumonectomy, 6 to segmentectomy, and 3 to bilobectomy. Chemotherapy was used in 15 patients, radiotherapy in 2, and a combination of radiotherapy and chemotherapy in 2. Improved quality of life was seen in the following domains: social (on postoperative day 90); physical/functional (some patients presenting better forced vital capacity and 6-minute walk test performance); and physical (in patients undergoing smaller resections). Lowered quality of life was seen in the following domains: social (for female patients); physical/social (resulting from radiotherapy, chemotherapy or both); and physical/functional (by postoperative day 30). CONCLUSIONS: It is important that studies evaluating the various determinants of quality of life, as well as the impact that cancer treatment modalities have on such variables, be conducted. The knowledge provided by such studies can contribute to improving the quality of life of patients undergoing pulmonary resection due to neoplasia.Avaliar a qualidade de vida relacionada à saúde de pacientes com ressecção de parênquima pulmonar por neoplasia. MÉTODO: Os pacientes foram estudados no pré-operatório e posteriormente nos 30º, 90º e 180º dias do pós-operatório, através do questionário The Medical Outcomes Study 36-item Short-Form Health Survey. Utilizaram-se como modelo estatístico as Equações de Estimação Generalizada em que a variável dependente qualidade de vida muda para cada paciente ao longo dos tempos de coleta, considerando como variáveis independentes: sexo, idade, escolaridade, tipo de cirurgia, radioterapia, quimioterapia, capacidade vital forçada e teste de caminhada de seis minutos. O nível de significância adotado foi de 5%. RESULTADOS: Concluíram o estudo 36 pacientes, sendo 20 do sexo masculino. Dezessete foram submetidos a lobectomia, 10 a pneumectomia, 6 a segmentectomia e 3 a bilobectomia. Quinze pacientes receberam quimioterapia, 2 radioterapia e outros 2 rádio e quimioterapia. Houve melhora da qualidade de vida nos domínios: social após três meses da cirurgia; físico e funcional nos pacientes com melhor desempenho do teste de caminhada de seis minutos e capacidade vital forçada; e físico nos pacientes com menor ressecção cirúrgica. Houve piora da qualidade de vida nos domínios: social no sexo feminino; físico e social mediante tratamento com rádio e/ou quimioterapia; e físico e funcional nos primeiros 30 dias do pós-operatório. CONCLUSÃO: É importante a realização de estudos sobre os vários componentes da qualidade de vida e o impacto das formas de tratamento oncológico sobre estas variáveis, visando à melhora da qualidade de vida após ressecção pulmonar por neoplasia3211015To evaluate the health-related quality of life of patients submitted to resection of the pulmonary parenchyma due to neoplasia. METHODS: The Medical Outcomes Study 36-item Short-Form Health Survey was used to evaluate patients in the preoperative period and on postoperative days 30, 90 and 180. We used the GEE statistical model, in which the dependent variable (quality of life) changes for each patient over the course of the evaluation. Independent variables were gender, age, educational level, type of surgery, radiotherapy, chemotherapy, forced vital capacity and 6-minute walk test. The level of significance adopted was 5%. RESULTS: The final study sample comprised 36 patients, 20 of whom were men. Of those 36 patients, 17 were submitted to lobectomy, 10 to pneumonectomy, 6 to segmentectomy, and 3 to bilobectomy. Chemotherapy was used in 15 patients, radiotherapy in 2, and a combination of radiotherapy and chemotherapy in 2. Improved quality of life was seen in the following domains: social (on postoperative day 90); physical/functional (some patients presenting better forced vital capacity and 6-minute walk test performance); and physical (in patients undergoing smaller resections). Lowered quality of life was seen in the following domains: social (for female patients); physical/social (resulting from radiotherapy, chemotherapy or both); and physical/functional (by postoperative day 30). CONCLUSIONS: It is important that studies evaluating the various determinants of quality of life, as well as the impact that cancer treatment modalities have on such variables, be conducted. The knowledge provided by such studies can contribute to improving the quality of life of patients undergoing pulmonary resection due to neoplasi

Prevalência da dependência de álcool e fatores associados em estudo de base populacional

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the prevalence of alcohol abuse/dependence and identify associated factors among demographic, family, socioeconomic and mental health variables. METHODS: A household survey was carried out in the urban area of Campinas, southeastern Brazil, in 2003. A total of 515 subjects, aged 14 years or more were randomly selected using a stratified cluster sample. The Self-Report Questionnaire and the Alcohol Use Disorder Identification Test were used in the interview. Prevalences were calculated, and univariate and multivariate logistic analyses performed by estimating odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals. RESULTS: The estimated prevalence of alcohol abuse/dependence was 13.1% (95% CI: 8.4;19.9) in men and 4.1% (95% CI: 1.9;8.6) in women. In the final multiple logistic regression model, alcohol abuse/dependence was significantly associated with age, income, schooling, religion and illicit drug use. The adjusted odds ratios were significantly higher in following variables: income between 2,501 and 10,000 dollars (OR=10.29); income above 10,000 dollars (OR=10.20); less than 12 years of schooling (OR=13.42); no religion (OR=9.16) or religion other than Evangelical (OR=4.77); and illicit drug use during lifetime (OR=4.47). Alcohol abuse and dependence patterns were different according to age group. CONCLUSIONS: There is a significantly high prevalence of alcohol abuse/dependence in this population. The knowledge of factors associated with alcohol abuse, and differences in consumption patterns should be taken into account in the development of harm reduction strategies.OBJETIVO: Estimar a prevalência do abuso/dependência de álcool e identificar fatores associados entre variáveis demográficas, familiares, socioeconômicas e relativas à saúde mental. MÉTODOS: Inquérito domiciliar na área urbana de Campinas, Estado de São Paulo, realizado em 2003. Indivíduos de 14 anos ou mais de idade (N=515) foram selecionados aleatoriamente, mediante amostragem estratificada por conglomerados e avaliados por entrevista com as escalas Self-Report Questionnaire e o Alcohol Use Disorder Identification Test. Foram calculadas as prevalências e realizadas análises logísticas uni e multivariada, razões de chance e intervalos de confiança. RESULTADOS: As prevalências estimadas de abuso/dependência de álcool foram 13,1% (IC 95%: 8,4%;19,9%) nos homens e 4,1% (IC 95%: 1,9%;8,6%) nas mulheres. No modelo de regressão logística múltipla final, o abuso/dependência de álcool revelou-se significativamente associado com idade, renda, escolaridade, religião e uso de drogas ilícitas. As categorias que apresentaram as maiores razões de chance ajustadas foram: renda (entre 2.501 e 10.000 dólares, OR=10,29; superior a 10.000 dólares, OR=10,20), escolaridade inferior a 12 anos (OR=13,42), não ter religião (OR=9,16) ou ser de religião que não fosse a evangélica (OR=4,77) e ter usado drogas ilícitas em algum momento da vida (OR=4,47). Os padrões de consumo e de dependência diferenciaram-se segundo o grupo etário. CONCLUSÕES: A prevalência de uso abusivo/dependência de álcool na população é considerável. O conhecimento dos fatores associados a tal comportamento e das diferenças de padrão de consumo deve ser levado em consideração na elaboração de estratégias de redução do dano