Functional diversification of the GALA type III effector family contributes to Ralstonia solanacearum adaptation on different plant hosts

Type III effectors from phytopathogenic bacteria exhibit a high degree of functional redundancy, hampering the evaluation of their precise contribution to pathogenicity. This is illustrated by the GALA type III effectors from Ralstonia solanacearum, which have been shown to be collectively, but not individually, required for disease on Arabidopsis thaliana and tomato. We investigated evolution, redundancy and diversification of this family in order to understand the individual contribution of the GALA effectors to pathogenicity.From sequences available, we reconstructed GALA phylogeny and performed selection studies. We then focused on the GALAs from the reference strain GMI1000 to examine their ability to suppress plant defense responses and contribution to pathogenicity on three different host plants: A. thaliana, tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum) and eggplant (Solanum melongena).The GALA family is well conserved within R. solanacearum species. Patterns of selection detected on some GALA family members, together with experimental results, show that GALAs underwent functional diversification.We conclude that functional divergence of the GALA family likely accounts for its remarkable conservation during R. solanacearum evolution and could contribute to R. solanacearum’s adaptation on several host plants

Le radici cristiane dell’Europa e la loro negazione

Over recent years in Europe a vast debate has taken place in the media and in politics about the opportunity to mention Christian roots among the building elements in the European Constitution’s preamble. Although this reference would not imply any obligation to the European Countries and would refer to an undisputed historical fact, thanks to France’s intervention the proposal was rejected. This refusal has not been understood by the european public opinion which was caught unprepared in front of the negation of a unitary historical fact that has always represented the common base for feeling european. So was missed the opportunity to give an historical and recognised basis to the European Community which appears more and more as an agglomerate of states without a soul.Negli ultimi anni in Europa si è svolto un ampio dibattito nei media e nella politica sull'opportunità di menzionare le radici cristiane tra gli elementi costitutivi del preambolo della Costituzione europea. Anche se questo riferimento non comporterebbe alcun obbligo nei confronti dei Paesi europei e farebbe riferimento a un fatto storico indiscusso, grazie all'intervento della Francia la proposta è stata respinta. Questo rifiuto non è stato compreso dall'opinione pubblica europea che è stata colta impreparata di fronte alla negazione di un fatto storico unitario che ha sempre rappresentato la base comune del sentirsi europei. Si è persa così l'occasione di dare una base storica e riconosciuta alla Comunità europea che appare sempre più come un agglomerato di Stati senza anima

A. Destutt de Tracy critique de Montesquieu : le libéralisme économique des idéologues

The "Ideologists” realized the transition between the Physiocrats of the 18 th century and the Liberals of the 19 th. A. Destutt de Tracy, who was one of their most significant represntatives, set out their general political philosophy in his "Commentary” on the "Esprit des lois” by Montesquieu. This latter gave him the opportunity to set out also his own liberal doctrine and his conception of economic activity as an exchange, the social link in the highest sense of the word, beneficial to both sides. Specialization, that is the division of work, increases production. In fact, man stricto sensu does not produce anything. The manufacturing industry, as trade, does nothing but add a degree of utility to things. Besides it is able to change into an inexhaustible source of wealth what seemed for ever unproductive. It is a pity, nevertheless, that the saint-simonian industrialism, which competed with the Ideologists’one, resulted in the secession between the engineers and the entrepreneurs, which is everlasting nowadays.Les Idéologues assurent la transition entre les physiocrates du XVIII e siècle et les libéraux du XIX e. A. Destutt de Tracy, qui est l’un de leurs représentants les plus significatifs, a exposé leur philosophie politique générale dans son «Commentaire» de l’ «Esprit des lois» de Montesquieu. Ce dernier lui donne l’occasion d’exposer également sa propre doctrine libérale et sa conception de l’activité économique comme échange, lien social par excellence, profitable aux deux parties. La spécialisation, ou division du travail, accroît la production. En fait l’homme, stricto sensu, ne produit rien. L’industrie manufacturière, comme le commerce, ne fait qu’ajouter un degré d’utilité aux choses. Elle est par ailleurs capable de transformer en une source inépuisable de richesses ce qui paraissait à jamais stérile. Il est regrettable, cependant, que l’industrialisme saint-simonien, qui a concurrencé celui des Idéologues, ait abouti à la scission entre ingénieurs et entrepreneurs, qui a perduré jusqu’à nos joursNemo Philippe. A. Destutt de Tracy critique de Montesquieu : le libéralisme économique des idéologues. In: Romantisme, 2006, n°133. Économie, économistes. pp. 25-34

Conférence de M. Philippe Nemo

Nemo Philippe. Conférence de M. Philippe Nemo. In: École pratique des hautes études, Section des sciences religieuses. Annuaire. Tome 89, 1980-1981. 1980. pp. 541-548