Characterization of tissue expression and activity of human alanine:glyoxylate aminotransferase 2

Metabolic syndrome is defined as a combination of obesity, elevated triglycerides, decreased high-density lipoproteins, hypertension and insulin resistance. It is at least partially caused by sedentary life style and unhealthy dietary habits and is a major risk factor for development and progression of cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes. Growing medical and socioeconomic impact of the metabolic syndrome warrants further active search for novel risk markers and therapeutic targets. Recent experimental and epidemiological studies have demonstrated the multiple roles of the endogenous methylarginines, asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA) and symmetric dimethylarginine (SDMA) as wells as the enzymes, which are involved in their catabolism, dimethyarginine dimethylaminohydrolases (DDAHs) and alanine:glyoxylate aminotransferase 2 (AGXT2) in the pathogenesis of metabolic syndrome and its complications. ADMA is thought to exhibit its pathological effects by inhibiting and uncoupling nitric oxide synthases (NOS), while SDMA can inhibit transport of L-arginine. DDAHs, namely DDAH1 and DDAH2, have been thought as the major enzymes metabolizing ADMA to citrulline, while being inactive towards SDMA. Experimental studies with upregulation of DDAH1 in animal models showed that lowering ADMA results in protection against endothelial dysfunction, atherosclerosis, ischemia/reperfusion injury and vascular remodeling, acceleration of angiogenesis in the settings of ischemia and improvement of insulin sensitivity. Unfortunately, all the attempts to upregulate DDAH1 using small drugs have not been successful. The data regarding the role of DDAH2 are contradictory, with some studies showing that it can metabolize ADMA under certain conditions and other studies questioning its enzymatic activity towards ADMA. AGXT2 is a mitochondrial aminotransferase, which can metabolize, among its other substrates, both ADMA and SDMA. It is a large protein with possible allosteric regulatory sites, suggesting that, in contrast to DDAH1, it could be upregulated by small molecules. The role of AGXT2 in different pathophysiological processes involving ADMA and SDMA is poorly understood. It has been recently discovered in the offspring cohort of the Framingham Heart Study participants that a composite compound, consisting of the products of metabolism of ADMA and SDMA by AGXT2 (asymmetric dimethylguanidino valeric acid (ADGV) and symmetric dimethylguanidino valeric acid (SDGV), correspondingly) is an independent biomarker of CT (computed tomography)-defined NAFLD (non-alcoholic fatty liver disease) and a predictor of future diabetes up to 12 years before disease, suggesting that AGXT2 may play a key role in development of metabolic disease and its progression. We and other have recently identified several other metabolically active substrates of AGXT2, such as a marker of cardiovascular and overall mortality homoarginine and a regulator of fatty acid oxidation and browning of adipose tissue beta-amino-isobutyric acid (BAIBA), which further supports the importance of AGXT2 in pathogenesis of cardiovascular and metabolic diseases. The data presented in the current thesis enable answering the two research aims: 1) Identification of the tissue and intracellular expression pattern of human AGXT2 and 2) Testing the hypothesis that ubiquitous transgenic overexpression of AGXT2 protects from ADMA-induced vascular damage in vivo. The first research aim provided a thorough characterization of AGXT2 expression in humans using multiple complimentary techniques and addressed the current discrepancy in the literature with previous demonstration of comparable levels of Agxt2 expression by RT-PCR and Western Blot in the kidneys and liver in mice, and previous reports on detection of predominant Agxt2 expression in the kidneys by Northern Blot and in-situ RNA-hybridization in rats. In our current study we analyzed AGXT2 expression in human tissues from a normal tissue bank by RT-PCR and further validated the results by Western Blot. We also performed immunohistochemical staining for AGXT2 and double fluorescent staining with an anti-AGXT2 antibody and a monoclonal anti-mitochondrial antibody. We saw the strongest expression of AGXT2 in the kidney and liver both on the mRNA and protein levels. Our immunohistochemistry stainings showed that AGXT2 is present in the convoluted tubule in the kidney and in the liver hepatocytes. The double fluorescent staining revealed the intracellular localization of AGXT2 in mitochondria. In the second research aim we investigated whether long-term upregulation of AGXT2 is safe and can protect from ADMA- mediated vascular damage in the setting of DDAH1 deficiency, which is commonly observed in cardiovascular pathologies. We generated AGXT2 transgenic (TG) mice with ubiquitous overexpression of AGXT2. qPCR and Western Blot confirmed the expression of the transgene. Systemic ADMA levels were decreased by 15% in TG mice. In comparison with wild type animals plasma levels of ADGV, the AGXT2 associated metabolite of ADMA, were six times higher. We crossed AGXT2 TG mice with DDAH1 knockout mice and observed that upregulation of AGXT2 lowers plasma ADMA and pulse pressure and protects the mice from endothelial dysfunction and adverse aortic remodeling. The work, included into this thesis demonstrates that both hepatocytes and kidney tubular epithelial cells are the major sources of AGXT2 in humans, where the enzyme is localized in mitochondria. The expression of AGXT2 in the liver is consistent with the proposed role of AGXT2 in development and progression of NAFLD and is consistent with our previous discovery of hepatocyte nuclear factor 4 alpha (HNF4α) as the major regulator of Agxt2 expression in the mouse liver. Chronic upregulation of AGXT2 in mice lowered systemic ADMA levels without any obvious effects on viability, development, growth and fertility, suggesting potential safety of this ADMA-lowering approach. Overexpression of AGXT2 protected from ADMA-induced vascular damage in the highly clinically relevant settings of DDAH1 deficiency, suggesting that the observed vascular damage was indeed caused by ADMA itself, rather than by some ADMA-independent effects of DDAH1 deficiency. The observed protective effects of AGXT2 upregulation are especially important, because all the efforts to develop pharmacological ADMA-lowering interventions by means of upregulation of DDAHs have been unsuccessful. The current study, therefore, provides the basis for the future screens to identify small molecules, which would upregulate AGXT2 activity

mRNA-Based Anti-TCR CDR3 Tumour Vaccine for T-Cell Lymphoma

Efficient vaccination can be achieved by injections of in vitro transcribed mRNA (ivt mRNA) coding for antigens. This vaccine format is particularly versatile and allows the production of individualised vaccines conferring, T-cell immunity against specific cancer mutations. The CDR3 hypervariable regions of immune receptors (T-cell receptor, TCR or B-cell receptor, BCR) in the context of T- or B-cell leukaemia or lymphoma are targetable and specific sequences, similar to cancer mutations. We evaluated the functionality of an mRNA-based vaccine designed to trigger immunity against TCR CDR3 regions in an EL4 T-lymphoma cell line-derived murine in vivo model. Vaccination against the hypervariable TCR regions proved to be a feasible approach and allowed for protection against T-lymphoma, even though immune escape in terms of TCR downregulation paralleled the therapeutic effect. However, analysis of human cutaneous T-cell lymphoma samples indicated that, as is the case in B-lymphomas, the clonotypic receptor may be a driver mutation and is not downregulated upon treatment. Thus, vaccination against TCR CDR3 regions using customised ivt mRNA is a promising immunotherapy method to be explored for the treatment of patients with T-cell lymphomas

RNA with chemotherapeutic base analogues as a dual-functional anti-cancer drug

Nanoparticles of different sizes formulated with unmodified RNA and Protamine differentially engage Toll-like Receptors (TLRs) and activate innate immune responses in vitro. Here, we report that similar differential immunostimulation that depends on the nanoparticle sizes is induced in vivo in wild type as well as in humanized mice. In addition, we found that the schedule of injections strongly affects the magnitude of the immune response. Immunostimulating 130 nm nanoparticles composed of RNA and Protamine can promote lung metastasis clearance but provides no control of subcutaneous tumors in a CT26 tumor model. We further enhanced the therapeutic capacity of Protamine-RNA nanoparticles by incorporating chemotherapeutic base analogues in the RNA; we coined these immunochemotherapeutic RNAs (icRNAs). Protamine-icRNA nanoparticles were successful at controlling established subcutaneous CT26 and B16 tumors as well as orthotopic glioblastoma. These data indicate that icRNAs are promising cancer therapies, which warrants their further validation for use in the clinic. Keywords: 5FU; Chemotherapy; RNA; immunotherapy; toll like receptor; type I interferon

Absence of Type I Interferon Autoantibodies or Significant Interferon Signature Alterations in Adults With Post-COVID-19 Syndrome

Genetic defects in the interferon (IFN) system or neutralizing autoantibodies against type I IFNs contribute to severe COVID-19. Such autoantibodies were proposed to affect post-COVID-19 syndrome (PCS), possibly causing persistent fatigue for >12 weeks after confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection. In the current study, we investigated 128 patients with PCS, 21 survivors of severe COVID-19, and 38 individuals who were asymptomatic. We checked for autoantibodies against IFN-α, IFN-β, and IFN-ω. Few patients with PCS had autoantibodies against IFNs but with no neutralizing activity, indicating a limited role of type I IFNs in PCS pathogenesis. In a subset consisting of 28 patients with PCS, we evaluated IFN-stimulated gene activity and showed that it did not correlate with fatigue. In conclusion, impairment of the type I IFN system is unlikely responsible for adult PCS

Scarred Lung. An Update on Radiation-Induced Pulmonary Fibrosis

Radiation-induced pulmonary fibrosis is a common severe long-time complication of radiation therapy for tumors of the thorax. Current therapeutic options used in the clinic include only supportive managements strategies, such as anti-inflammatory treatment using steroids, their efficacy, however, is far from being satisfactory. Recent studies have demonstrated that the development of lung fibrosis is a dynamic and complex process, involving the release of reactive oxygen species, activation of Toll-like receptors, recruitment of inflammatory cells, excessive production of nitric oxide and production of collagen by activated myofibroblasts. In this review we summarized the current state of knowledge on the pathophysiological processes leading to the development of lung fibrosis and we also discussed the possible treatment options

Characterization of tissue expression and activity of human alanine:glyoxylate aminotransferase 2

Metabolic syndrome is defined as a combination of obesity, elevated triglycerides, decreased high-density lipoproteins, hypertension and insulin resistance. It is at least partially caused by sedentary life style and unhealthy dietary habits and is a major risk factor for development and progression of cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes. Growing medical and socioeconomic impact of the metabolic syndrome warrants further active search for novel risk markers and therapeutic targets. Recent experimental and epidemiological studies have demonstrated the multiple roles of the endogenous methylarginines, asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA) and symmetric dimethylarginine (SDMA) as wells as the enzymes, which are involved in their catabolism, dimethyarginine dimethylaminohydrolases (DDAHs) and alanine:glyoxylate aminotransferase 2 (AGXT2) in the pathogenesis of metabolic syndrome and its complications. ADMA is thought to exhibit its pathological effects by inhibiting and uncoupling nitric oxide synthases (NOS), while SDMA can inhibit transport of L-arginine. DDAHs, namely DDAH1 and DDAH2, have been thought as the major enzymes metabolizing ADMA to citrulline, while being inactive towards SDMA. Experimental studies with upregulation of DDAH1 in animal models showed that lowering ADMA results in protection against endothelial dysfunction, atherosclerosis, ischemia/reperfusion injury and vascular remodeling, acceleration of angiogenesis in the settings of ischemia and improvement of insulin sensitivity. Unfortunately, all the attempts to upregulate DDAH1 using small drugs have not been successful. The data regarding the role of DDAH2 are contradictory, with some studies showing that it can metabolize ADMA under certain conditions and other studies questioning its enzymatic activity towards ADMA. AGXT2 is a mitochondrial aminotransferase, which can metabolize, among its other substrates, both ADMA and SDMA. It is a large protein with possible allosteric regulatory sites, suggesting that, in contrast to DDAH1, it could be upregulated by small molecules. The role of AGXT2 in different pathophysiological processes involving ADMA and SDMA is poorly understood. It has been recently discovered in the offspring cohort of the Framingham Heart Study participants that a composite compound, consisting of the products of metabolism of ADMA and SDMA by AGXT2 (asymmetric dimethylguanidino valeric acid (ADGV) and symmetric dimethylguanidino valeric acid (SDGV), correspondingly) is an independent biomarker of CT (computed tomography)-defined NAFLD (non-alcoholic fatty liver disease) and a predictor of future diabetes up to 12 years before disease, suggesting that AGXT2 may play a key role in development of metabolic disease and its progression. We and other have recently identified several other metabolically active substrates of AGXT2, such as a marker of cardiovascular and overall mortality homoarginine and a regulator of fatty acid oxidation and browning of adipose tissue beta-amino-isobutyric acid (BAIBA), which further supports the importance of AGXT2 in pathogenesis of cardiovascular and metabolic diseases. The data presented in the current thesis enable answering the two research aims: 1) Identification of the tissue and intracellular expression pattern of human AGXT2 and 2) Testing the hypothesis that ubiquitous transgenic overexpression of AGXT2 protects from ADMA-induced vascular damage in vivo. The first research aim provided a thorough characterization of AGXT2 expression in humans using multiple complimentary techniques and addressed the current discrepancy in the literature with previous demonstration of comparable levels of Agxt2 expression by RT-PCR and Western Blot in the kidneys and liver in mice, and previous reports on detection of predominant Agxt2 expression in the kidneys by Northern Blot and in-situ RNA-hybridization in rats. In our current study we analyzed AGXT2 expression in human tissues from a normal tissue bank by RT-PCR and further validated the results by Western Blot. We also performed immunohistochemical staining for AGXT2 and double fluorescent staining with an anti-AGXT2 antibody and a monoclonal anti-mitochondrial antibody. We saw the strongest expression of AGXT2 in the kidney and liver both on the mRNA and protein levels. Our immunohistochemistry stainings showed that AGXT2 is present in the convoluted tubule in the kidney and in the liver hepatocytes. The double fluorescent staining revealed the intracellular localization of AGXT2 in mitochondria. In the second research aim we investigated whether long-term upregulation of AGXT2 is safe and can protect from ADMA- mediated vascular damage in the setting of DDAH1 deficiency, which is commonly observed in cardiovascular pathologies. We generated AGXT2 transgenic (TG) mice with ubiquitous overexpression of AGXT2. qPCR and Western Blot confirmed the expression of the transgene. Systemic ADMA levels were decreased by 15% in TG mice. In comparison with wild type animals plasma levels of ADGV, the AGXT2 associated metabolite of ADMA, were six times higher. We crossed AGXT2 TG mice with DDAH1 knockout mice and observed that upregulation of AGXT2 lowers plasma ADMA and pulse pressure and protects the mice from endothelial dysfunction and adverse aortic remodeling. The work, included into this thesis demonstrates that both hepatocytes and kidney tubular epithelial cells are the major sources of AGXT2 in humans, where the enzyme is localized in mitochondria. The expression of AGXT2 in the liver is consistent with the proposed role of AGXT2 in development and progression of NAFLD and is consistent with our previous discovery of hepatocyte nuclear factor 4 alpha (HNF4α) as the major regulator of Agxt2 expression in the mouse liver. Chronic upregulation of AGXT2 in mice lowered systemic ADMA levels without any obvious effects on viability, development, growth and fertility, suggesting potential safety of this ADMA-lowering approach. Overexpression of AGXT2 protected from ADMA-induced vascular damage in the highly clinically relevant settings of DDAH1 deficiency, suggesting that the observed vascular damage was indeed caused by ADMA itself, rather than by some ADMA-independent effects of DDAH1 deficiency. The observed protective effects of AGXT2 upregulation are especially important, because all the efforts to develop pharmacological ADMA-lowering interventions by means of upregulation of DDAHs have been unsuccessful. The current study, therefore, provides the basis for the future screens to identify small molecules, which would upregulate AGXT2 activity

Characterization of tissue expression and activity of human alanine:glyoxylate aminotransferase 2

Metabolic syndrome is defined as a combination of obesity, elevated triglycerides, decreased high-density lipoproteins, hypertension and insulin resistance. It is at least partially caused by sedentary life style and unhealthy dietary habits and is a major risk factor for development and progression of cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes. Growing medical and socioeconomic impact of the metabolic syndrome warrants further active search for novel risk markers and therapeutic targets. Recent experimental and epidemiological studies have demonstrated the multiple roles of the endogenous methylarginines, asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA) and symmetric dimethylarginine (SDMA) as wells as the enzymes, which are involved in their catabolism, dimethyarginine dimethylaminohydrolases (DDAHs) and alanine:glyoxylate aminotransferase 2 (AGXT2) in the pathogenesis of metabolic syndrome and its complications. ADMA is thought to exhibit its pathological effects by inhibiting and uncoupling nitric oxide synthases (NOS), while SDMA can inhibit transport of L-arginine. DDAHs, namely DDAH1 and DDAH2, have been thought as the major enzymes metabolizing ADMA to citrulline, while being inactive towards SDMA. Experimental studies with upregulation of DDAH1 in animal models showed that lowering ADMA results in protection against endothelial dysfunction, atherosclerosis, ischemia/reperfusion injury and vascular remodeling, acceleration of angiogenesis in the settings of ischemia and improvement of insulin sensitivity. Unfortunately, all the attempts to upregulate DDAH1 using small drugs have not been successful. The data regarding the role of DDAH2 are contradictory, with some studies showing that it can metabolize ADMA under certain conditions and other studies questioning its enzymatic activity towards ADMA. AGXT2 is a mitochondrial aminotransferase, which can metabolize, among its other substrates, both ADMA and SDMA. It is a large protein with possible allosteric regulatory sites, suggesting that, in contrast to DDAH1, it could be upregulated by small molecules. The role of AGXT2 in different pathophysiological processes involving ADMA and SDMA is poorly understood. It has been recently discovered in the offspring cohort of the Framingham Heart Study participants that a composite compound, consisting of the products of metabolism of ADMA and SDMA by AGXT2 (asymmetric dimethylguanidino valeric acid (ADGV) and symmetric dimethylguanidino valeric acid (SDGV), correspondingly) is an independent biomarker of CT (computed tomography)-defined NAFLD (non-alcoholic fatty liver disease) and a predictor of future diabetes up to 12 years before disease, suggesting that AGXT2 may play a key role in development of metabolic disease and its progression. We and other have recently identified several other metabolically active substrates of AGXT2, such as a marker of cardiovascular and overall mortality homoarginine and a regulator of fatty acid oxidation and browning of adipose tissue beta-amino-isobutyric acid (BAIBA), which further supports the importance of AGXT2 in pathogenesis of cardiovascular and metabolic diseases. The data presented in the current thesis enable answering the two research aims: 1) Identification of the tissue and intracellular expression pattern of human AGXT2 and 2) Testing the hypothesis that ubiquitous transgenic overexpression of AGXT2 protects from ADMA-induced vascular damage in vivo. The first research aim provided a thorough characterization of AGXT2 expression in humans using multiple complimentary techniques and addressed the current discrepancy in the literature with previous demonstration of comparable levels of Agxt2 expression by RT-PCR and Western Blot in the kidneys and liver in mice, and previous reports on detection of predominant Agxt2 expression in the kidneys by Northern Blot and in-situ RNA-hybridization in rats. In our current study we analyzed AGXT2 expression in human tissues from a normal tissue bank by RT-PCR and further validated the results by Western Blot. We also performed immunohistochemical staining for AGXT2 and double fluorescent staining with an anti-AGXT2 antibody and a monoclonal anti-mitochondrial antibody. We saw the strongest expression of AGXT2 in the kidney and liver both on the mRNA and protein levels. Our immunohistochemistry stainings showed that AGXT2 is present in the convoluted tubule in the kidney and in the liver hepatocytes. The double fluorescent staining revealed the intracellular localization of AGXT2 in mitochondria. In the second research aim we investigated whether long-term upregulation of AGXT2 is safe and can protect from ADMA- mediated vascular damage in the setting of DDAH1 deficiency, which is commonly observed in cardiovascular pathologies. We generated AGXT2 transgenic (TG) mice with ubiquitous overexpression of AGXT2. qPCR and Western Blot confirmed the expression of the transgene. Systemic ADMA levels were decreased by 15% in TG mice. In comparison with wild type animals plasma levels of ADGV, the AGXT2 associated metabolite of ADMA, were six times higher. We crossed AGXT2 TG mice with DDAH1 knockout mice and observed that upregulation of AGXT2 lowers plasma ADMA and pulse pressure and protects the mice from endothelial dysfunction and adverse aortic remodeling. The work, included into this thesis demonstrates that both hepatocytes and kidney tubular epithelial cells are the major sources of AGXT2 in humans, where the enzyme is localized in mitochondria. The expression of AGXT2 in the liver is consistent with the proposed role of AGXT2 in development and progression of NAFLD and is consistent with our previous discovery of hepatocyte nuclear factor 4 alpha (HNF4α) as the major regulator of Agxt2 expression in the mouse liver. Chronic upregulation of AGXT2 in mice lowered systemic ADMA levels without any obvious effects on viability, development, growth and fertility, suggesting potential safety of this ADMA-lowering approach. Overexpression of AGXT2 protected from ADMA-induced vascular damage in the highly clinically relevant settings of DDAH1 deficiency, suggesting that the observed vascular damage was indeed caused by ADMA itself, rather than by some ADMA-independent effects of DDAH1 deficiency. The observed protective effects of AGXT2 upregulation are especially important, because all the efforts to develop pharmacological ADMA-lowering interventions by means of upregulation of DDAHs have been unsuccessful. The current study, therefore, provides the basis for the future screens to identify small molecules, which would upregulate AGXT2 activity

Protamine-Based Strategies for RNA Transfection

Protamine is a natural cationic peptide mixture mostly known as a drug for the neutralization of heparin and as a compound in formulations of slow-release insulin. Protamine is also used for cellular delivery of nucleic acids due to opposite charge-driven coupling. This year marks 60 years since the first use of Protamine as a transfection enhancement agent. Since then, Protamine has been broadly used as a stabilization agent for RNA delivery. It has also been involved in several compositions for RNA-based vaccinations in clinical development. Protamine stabilization of RNA shows double functionality: it not only protects RNA from degradation within biological systems, but also enhances penetration into cells. A Protamine-based RNA delivery system is a flexible and versatile platform that can be adjusted according to therapeutic goals: fused with targeting antibodies for precise delivery, digested into a cell penetrating peptide for better transfection efficiency or not-covalently mixed with functional polymers. This manuscript gives an overview of the strategies employed in protamine-based RNA delivery, including the optimization of the nucleic acid’s stability and translational efficiency, as well as the regulation of its immunostimulatory properties from early studies to recent developments

Lipofection with Synthetic mRNA as a Simple Method for T-Cell Immunomonitoring

The quantification of T-cell immune responses is crucial for the monitoring of natural and treatment-induced immunity, as well as for the validation of new immunotherapeutic approaches. The present study presents a simple method based on lipofection of synthetic mRNA in mononuclear cells as a method to determine in vitro T-cell responses. We compared several commercially available transfection reagents for their potential to transfect mRNA into human peripheral blood mononuclear cells and murine splenocytes. We also investigated the impact of RNA modifications in improving this method. Our results demonstrate that antigen-specific T-cell immunomonitoring can be easily and quickly performed by simple lipofection of antigen-coding mRNA in complex immune cell populations. Thus, our work discloses a convenient solution for the in vitro monitoring of natural or therapy-induced T-cell immune responses

Beta-Aminoisobutyric Acid as a Novel Regulator of Carbohydrate and Lipid Metabolism

The prevalence and incidence of metabolic syndrome is reaching pandemic proportions worldwide, thus warranting an intensive search for novel preventive and treatment strategies. Recent studies have identified a number of soluble factors secreted by adipocytes and myocytes (adipo-/myokines), which link sedentary life style, abdominal obesity, and impairments in carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. In this review, we discuss the metabolic roles of the recently discovered myokine β-aminoisobutyric acid (BAIBA), which is produced by skeletal muscle during physical activity. In addition to physical activity, the circulating levels of BAIBA are controlled by the mitochondrial enzyme alanine: glyoxylate aminotransferase 2 (AGXT2), which is primarily expressed in the liver and kidneys. Recent studies have shown that BAIBA can protect from diet-induced obesity in animal models. It induces transition of white adipose tissue to a “beige„ phenotype, which induces fatty acids oxidation and increases insulin sensitivity. While the exact mechanisms of BAIBA-induced metabolic effects are still not well understood, we discuss some of the proposed pathways. The reviewed data provide new insights into the connection between physical activity and energy metabolism and suggest that BAIBA might be a potential novel drug for treatment of the metabolic syndrome and its cardiovascular complications