土地制度の進化とそれが土地保有権の保障と土地の貸借売買および農業生産性に及ぼした影響: ウガンダの農村における実証研究

政策分析プログラム / Policy Analysis Program政策研究大学院大学 / National Graduate Institute for Policy Studies論文審査委員: 園部 哲史（主査）, 松本 朋哉, 大塚 啓二郎, Alistair Munro, 高橋 和志（アジア経済研究所

Verneområder og lokalbefolkning i Uganda : nytte, kostnader, livsvilkår og narrativer rundt Bwindi Impenetrable National Park

This thesis contributes to a current debate on how to balance conservation and development goals. Globally, land set aside for the protection of biodiversity has increased exponentially over the last 30 years. Despite contemporary efforts to share protected area (PA) benefits with the local people in proximity to the PAs, in particular tourism revenues, the social impacts of establishing and maintaining these areas remain a contentious issue. It is in this context that this study was conducted at Bwindi Impenetrable National Park in Uganda. The specific research questions of the study were: i. To what extent does tourism revenue-sharing promote conservation and poverty reduction? ii. What is the nature of benefits derived and costs incurred by communities adjacent to the PA? iii. How are the benefits and costs distributed, and how does this affect people‟s attitudes towards the PA? iv. How do local people describe their situation as neighbours of a PA? These questions have been addressed in four separate, but interrelated studies. Data were collected using a mixed methods approach. Secondary data in the form of written sources on Bwindi was used in addition to primary data gathered through a combination of participant observations, interviews with key informants, structured interviews, semistructured interviews, and unstructured interviews. The findings reveal serious inadequacies in the tourism revenue-sharing arrangement that severely constrain the potential for poverty reduction. This also reduces its potential local support effect for the conservation. Whereas an average household reports an annual total income of US$1038, the average benefit from revenue sharing is only US$12 (or 1.2%). Any positive effect from this contribution is further reduced by problems in the allocation-making processes and associated nepotism; this is because the revenues are planned for and distributed by inept local institutions under complex institutional arrangements that lack real local participation and involvement. In addition to the direct sharing of tourism revenues there are a number of other activities that could fall under a general framework of “Development Through Conservation” (e.g. support to private tree planting). Another activity is park-related employment. Each of these two sources contributes about 2% to an average household‟s annual income. Costs include the traditional costs of physical evictions. However, the scope of this thesis is limited to the recurrent costs associated with restrictions on access to resources and damage caused by wildlife. A household bordering on the park foregoes on average about 6% of its annual income because of these restrictions on access to forest resources and on average loses another 10% of its annual income as a result of damage caused by wildlife. For some households, losses from wildlife damage can approach as much as 26% of the household income. What emerges is a situation where local people largely subsidise conservation through the high local costs. The estimated reported average local income is US$ 0.5/ per adult equivalent unit/day. Moreover, because of the problems in decision-making and the associated nepotism, tourism revenues often do not accrue to cost victims. In practice, PA benefits are often subject to local elite capture. This increases local inequality and compromises the ability of the PA to contribute to poverty reduction and improve state local people relations. In spite of this, there seems to be improved attitudes among local people towards the park, with 78 percent of our respondents believing that Bwindi‟s conversion to a national park was a good thing, and despite the lack of individual benefits. People seem to be concerned about nature and the forest regardless of possible monetary transfers. Local perceptions furthermore seem to be characterised by an ambivalence that significantly deviates from the win-win narrative frequently presented by external actors. Local actors or households do regard the present situation as unsatisfactory (a perception which is well-grounded and generally supported by the socio-economic studies in this thesis). However there is some prospect of an improved situation in the future, particularly with regard to tourism because there are promises of improvements in the amount of revenues set aside for local people. Social, political and economic issues relating to PAs are presented and discussed in this thesis. Wider implications and representivity of the findings for other protected area policies in Uganda and elsewhere are several. It is observed that the eventual successes of PAs for the future will depend not only on the overall benefits and costs that eventually reach local communities but also on the distribution of costs and benefits, the implications for damage compensation, and impact on local inequality and the compatibility of present management with local social values, and norms and perceptions of rights and duties Local narratives form important insights in this context and need to be taken much more seriously in endeavours for rights-based development, local involvement and real participation. The local narratives should thus inform policy and practice, and act as a possible counter to the narratives produced by powerful external actors.Denne avhandlingen bidrar til en pågående debatt om naturvern og utvikling. Verdens verneområder for biologisk mangfold har økt eksponensielt de siste 30 årene. Det har vært mange forsøk på å dele inntekter fra turisme i verneområder med lokalbefolkningen. Likevel er fortsatt de sosiale kostnadene ved verneområder et omstridt spørsmål. Dette er bakgrunnen for studien av Bwindi Impenetrable National Park i Uganda. Studiens problemstillinger har vært: i. I hvilken grad bidrar lokalbefolkningens tilgang til inntekter fra turisme til naturvern og reduksjon av fattigdom? ii. Hvilke goder og kostnader av verneområdet får de nærmeste lokalsamfunnene? iii. Hvordan er goder og kostnader fordelt, og hvordan påvirker dette folks holdninger til verneområdet? iv. Hvordan beskriver folk som er naboer til verneområdet sin egen situasjon og sitt forhold til parken? Disse spørsmålene har blitt besvart i fire ulike delstudier. Data ble innsamlet ved hjelp av ulike metoder. Sekundærdata som skriftlige kilder om Bwindi ble brukt i tillegg til primærdata innsamlet ved en kombinasjon av deltakende observasjon, intervjuer med nøkkelinformanter og strukturerte og ustrukturerte intervjuer. Funnene avslører alvorlig begrensninger i fordelingen av inntekter fra turisme, noe som i betydelig grad begrenser potensialet for reduksjon av fattigdom. Dette begrenser også mulighetene for å få lokal støtte for naturvernet. Mens et gjennomsnittlig hushold oppgir en årsinntekt på 1038 USD er gjennomsnittlig inntekt fra den naturbaserte turismen på bare 12 USD i året (eller 1.2% av samlede inntekter). Positive effekter av dette bidraget reduseres ytterligere av problemer med selve fordelingsprosessen knyttet blant annet til nepotisme. Dette skyldes til dels at inntektsfordelingen er planlagt for og distribuert gjennom svake lokale institusjoner med komplekse institusjonelle arrangementer og der lokal deltakelse i stor grad er fraværende. I tillegg til direkte fordeling av inntekter fra turisme, er det også en rekke andre aktiviteter som kunne falle inn under ”naturvernbasert utvikling” (for eksempel støtte til privat treplanting). En annen aktivitet er arbeidsplasser generert av nasjonalparken. Hver av disse to kildene bidrar gjennomsnittlig med 2% av husholdets årlige inntekt i følge våre undersøkelser. Avhandlingen konsentrerer seg om kostnader forbundet med begrensninger på tilgang til ressurser og skader forårsaket av vilt. Et hushold i nærheten av nasjonalparken gir i gjennomsnitt fra seg 6 % av dets årlige inntekt på grunn av førstnevnte begrensninger og 10% mistes i form av skader på avling og husdyr forårsaket av parkens ville dyr. For noen hushold vil slike viltskader kunne beløpe seg til 26% av husholdets inntekter. Resultatet er at lokalbefolkningen ender opp med å subsidiere naturvernet gjennom å bli påført høye lokale kostnader. Den estimerte gjennomsnittlige lokale inntekten er 0.5 USD pr voksen pr dag. På grunn av de nevnte problemene med forvaltningen tilfaller sjelden turistinntekter de som bærer de direkte kostnadene. Det er i praksis lokale eliter som tilriver seg mesteparten av inntektene fra nasjonalparken. Dette øker lokal ulikhet og begrenser mulighetene for naturvernet til å bidra til å redusere fattigdom og å forbedre forholdet mellom staten og lokalbefolkningen. På tross av dette, virker det som holdningene blant lokalbefolkningen til parken i seg selv har bedret seg. Blant våre respondenter var 78 % positive til at Bwindi er en nasjonalpark, til tross for mangelen på individuelle nyttevirkninger fra parken. Folk virker opptatt av vern av naturen og skogen uavhengig av pengeoverføringer. Lokale betraktninger er videre karakterisert av en ambivalens som avviker fra et vinnvinn- narrativ som ofte presenteres av eksterne aktører. Lokalbefolkningen ser ikke på den aktuelle situasjonen som tilfredsstillende. Det kan imidlertid være håp om forbedringer, fordi det er løfter om at en større andel av inntektene fra turisme skal tilfalle lokalbefolkningen. Sosiale, politiske og økonomiske sider ved vern av nasjonalparker blir presentert og diskutert i denne avhandlingen. Det er flere implikasjoner av disse funnene for andre verneområder i Uganda og andre steder. Mulighetene for at verneområder skal lykkes i fremtiden er ikke bare avhengig av generelle inntekter og kostnader, men også av fordelingen av disse inntektene og kostnadene, kompensasjon for skader forårsaket av vilt, konsekvenser for lokal ulikhet og hvordan forvaltningen forholder seg til lokale sosiale verdier, normer, rettigheter og plikter. Lokale narrativer representerer viktige innsikter i denne sammenheng og de må tas mye mer alvorlig i nye forsøk på en rettighetsbasert utvikling som innebærer reell lokal deltakelse. Politikkutforming og praksis bør derfor basere seg på slike lokale mot-narrativer som ofte står i motsetning til narrativer produsert av mektige eksterne aktører.Nordiska Afrikainstitutet (NAI) ; Norsk institutt for naturforskning (NINA

Spontaneous rapture of an incisional hernia: A case report

An incisional hernia develops in the scar of a surgical incision. Rarely, a particularly thin-walled large incisional hernia may actually ulcerate at its fundus so that omentum protrudes or there is even the development of an intestinal fistula. Spontaneous rupture of an abdominal hernia is very rare and usually occurs in incisional or recurrent groin hernia1. Von Helwig2 in 1958 reported 47 cases of spontaneous exteriorization of bowel through abdominal hernia, out of these 17 cases were through incisional hernia while others were through inguinal, femoral, umbilical and epigastric hernias. The site of rupture is different in diverse studies. Hartley3 and Hamilton4 reported rupture through thr lower midline incision while Aggarwal5 found herniation after upper abdominal surgery following perforated duodenal ulcer

What issues facilitate and constrain the use of value capture mechanisms by the state in Uganda : case study of Kampala-Entebbe Express Highway

The purpose of the research was to examine the issues that constrain and facilitate the use of value capture mechanisms by the state in Uganda. Considering that limited research had been undertaken on value capture in Uganda, an exploratory case study approach was used to identify and investigate the issues associated with the use of value capture in Uganda. The identified case study was the Kampala-Entebbe Express Highway. The methodology involved collection of data using the survey method and desktop review of relevant documentation. The survey method was conducted using face to face interviews with carefully selected respondents that were knowledgeable in the subject matter of the research. Both qualitative and quantitative data were collected. The qualitative data was analysed using thematic analysis with the assistance of Nvivo, a qualitative data analysis tool while descriptive statistics was used to analyse the quantitative data. The findings of the research showed that value is created from the provision of public transport infrastructure. However, there are issues that may constrain the capture of this created value. These included insufficient valuation of land parcels and registration of land ownership, the existing land tenure system, gaps in the policy and legal framework and insufficient institutional capacity

Ways School Leaders Support the Teaching of Chemistry

The study aims to reinforce the effective teaching of chemistry in secondary schools through the support of the school leadership in the implementation of the competence-based curriculum (CBC). Interviews were organised and conducted with five headteachers and five deputy headteachers from ten selected schools. The results confirmed that the support provided by the school leadership in teaching chemistry was dominated by 30% of respondents at visiting teachers in classes, provision of some basic teaching materials and encouraging teachers to work in the chemistry department for mutual support and professional growth. However, in some schools, there is a need for prioritising continuous professional development (CPD) opportunities, feedback meetings and analysing school data for decision making. Therefore, this study recommends more efforts in CPDs, avail enough teaching aids and hold the pedagogical review and learning meetings lead by headteachers; analyse and use the school data for continuous improvement and build the school on tangible evidence in positive learning outcomes. Plus more support in engaging learners doing chemistry rather than just giving them chemistry books. Transformational leadership is needed, where all stakeholders share the same vision and mission of the school

Improving students’ cognitive process in biology using concept mapping and cooperative mastery learning strategies

Students’ performance in biology in Rwanda National Examinations has been reported to be unsatisfactory. This demands teachers to shift to methods that enable students to acquire meaningful learning. In an attempt to cope with this situation, the effects of concept mapping (CM) and cooperative mastery learning (CML) on the cognitive process in biology among lower secondary school students in Nyamagabe district, Rwanda was investigated. A quasi-experimental non-equivalent pre-test, post-test control group design was applied to a sample of 449 senior secondary school two (SS2) students (224 males and 225 females) drawn from seven co-educational secondary schools purposively selected from 46 schools. The students were in CM (n=151), CML (n=144) and conventional teaching method (CTM) (n=154) groups. The biology Achievement Test with a reliability of 0.82 obtained from the Kuder Richardson (KR-21) formula was used to collect data. Analysis of Covariance and Bonferroni test were applied for data analysis. Findings revealed that CM and CML groups scored better in all cognitive domains tested than the CTM group. A statistically significant difference between CM and CML was observed in favor of the CM. Based on the findings, it was concluded that the CM and CML are capable of improving secondary school students’ mastery of the content taught at all levels of cognition. Therefore, learning with CM and CML could be a viable option for teachers for addressing attainment issues in biology

Decentralisation of Forest Management — Is it a Panacea to Challenges in Forest Governance in Uganda?

Decentralisation of forest management is currently implemented in many countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America as a governance strategy aimed at enhancing forest resource conservation, poverty alleviation and equity in forest resource utilisation. In Uganda, the overarching aim of decentralisation of the forest sector was to shift responsibility of forest management to lower elected local government councils so as to increase participation and accountability in the forest sector. In this chapter, we investigate whether decentralisation has led to transfer of “real” power to local authorities and the extent to which the original objectives of decentralised forest service delivery have been achieved and challenges encountered in the implementation. We used questionnaires, unstructured observations and interviews to collect data from three districts of Uganda. We found that District Forest Departments of local government are mostly involved in revenue generating activities and protection of local forest reserves with only a very limited focus on activities that endear people towards participation in the management of local forest reserves. Power sharing of District Local Governments with lower local institutions and local communities is extremely limited. Contradictory policies about forest resource governance, inequitable sharing of revenues generated from forest resources between the District and Sub-county governments, rent seeking and political corruption amongst actors who are charged with forest law enforcement are the major challenges in dispensing decentralised forest governance. There is need to increase space for citizen participation in the management of forest resources, holding accountable of the duty bearers and equity

Fit for Purpose Land Administration:Country Implementation Strategy for Addressing Uganda´s Land Tenure Security Problems

The Republic of Uganda is one of the five countries within the East African region. Uganda’s efforts to increase land productivity are hampered by land tenure insecurity related problems. For more than ten years, Fit for Purpose Land Administration (FFPLA) pilot projects have been implemented in various parts of the country. Uganda is now in advanced stages of developing a country strategy for implementing a fit for purpose approach to land administration, to define the interventions, time and cost required to transform the existing formal (western type) land administration system into an administration system that is based on FFPLA principles. This paper reviews three case studies to investigate how lessons learnt from pilot projects informed a FFPLA country implementation strategy. The review is based on data collected during the development of the FFPLA strategy, in which the authors directly participated. The data collection methods included document review, field visits and interviews with purposively selected respondents from the pilot sites and institutions that had piloted FFPLA in Uganda. The study identified that pilot projects are beneficial in highlighting specific gaps in spatial, legal and institutional frameworks, that have potential to constrain FFPLA implementation. Pilot projects provided specific data for informed planning, programing and costing key interventions in the FFPLA country implementation strategy. The lessons learnt from the pilot projects, informed the various steps and issues considered while developing the national strategy for implementing a FFPLA approach in Uganda. On the other hand, the study identified that uncoordinated pilot projects are potential sources of inconsistencies in data and products, which may be cumbersome to harmonize at a national level. In order to implement a fit for purpose approach for land administration at a national level, it is necessary to consolidate the lessons leant from pilots into a unified country implementation strategy