Aid to education stagnates, jeopardising global targets

Total aid to education more than doubled in real terms between 2002 and 2010, when it reached US$14.2 billion. Since 2010 it has stagnated. As of 2014, it was 8$13.1 billion. Total aid to education fell by almost US$600 million, or 4$10.1 billion over the same period. This shows that most donors are giving education a lower priority within their aid budgets. Education’s share of total aid (excluding debt relief) fell from 10.2% in 2010 to 9.5% in 2013 and 8.2% in 2014. While education aid from bilateral donors followed the overall trend, aid from multilateral donors rose. Total aid to education across bilateral donors fell by 9% or US$9 45 million between 2013 and 2014. Three donors account for most of this drop: Japan, whose aid fell by US$550 million, or 48%, the United Arab Emirates (down US$529 million, or 74$208 million, or 13%). These reductions were partially countered by increases in aid from Australia (up US$138 million, or 35$107 million, or 11%)

N-methyl-2-hydroxyethylammonium oleate ionic liquid performance as corrosion inhibitor for mild steel in hydrochloric acid medium

The aim of the present study is to evaluate the performance of N‐methyl‐2‐ hydroxyethylammonium oleate ([m‐2HEA][Ol]) as a corrosion inhibitor for mild steel in a 0.1‐mol/L hydrochloric acid solution and also investigate the role of chloride in the inhibition mechanism. This protic ionic liquid (PIL) has formerly shown a high efficiency as a corrosion inhibitor in a neutral chloride medium. Electrochemical and weight loss measurements, surface contact angle determination, scanning electron microscopy, and Raman spectroscopy were used to understand the factors that influence the response of the studied inhibitor. Results revealed that [m‐2HEA][Ol] behaves as a mixed‐type adsorption inhibitor, by blocking cathodic sites and by modifying the activation energy of the anodic reaction, and it can reach up to 94–97% of inhibition efficiency. PIL adsorption was enhanced by the excess of positive charge of the mild steel. The effect of inhibitor molecule has been discussed to propose a mechanism that explains the inhibitory action of the corrosion inhibitor, pointing out the role of chloride in the inhibition mechanism

An amino-based protic ionic liquid as a corrosion inhibitor of mild steel in aqueous chloride solutions

Protic ionic liquids (PILs) have shown to be promising substances as corrosion inhibitors (CIs). In line with this, the aim of this study is to study the performance and propose the corrosion inhibition mechanism of N‐methyl‐2‐ hydroxyethylamine (M‐2HEAOL) and bis‐2‐hidroxyethylamine (B‐HEAOL) oleate, for mild steel, in a neutral chloride solution. Electrochemical characterization was conducted under static and hydrodynamic conditions, and it was revealed that M‐2HEAOL and B‐HEAOL worked as mixed‐type CIs with more interference on the anodic reaction. Inhibition efficiency depended on the concentration reaching 97% of inhibition efficiency in 5 mmol/L concentration. Scanning electron microscopy, optical interferometry, Raman spectroscopy, and Fourier‐transform infrared spectroscopy are used to elicit the chemical composition of the surface film and corrosion morphology of steel in the presence of CIs, the adsorption processes of which involved physical and chemical adsorption between metal and different parts of ionic liquids. The results allowed the proposition of a corrosion inhibition mechanism

Passivation of iron in solutions containing borate using rotating ring-disc measurements

Investigou-se o comportamento eletroquímico do ferro em soluções neutras de perclorato de sódio contendo pequenas concentrações de borato de sódio, através da técnica de voltametria cíclica e empregando-se eletrodo rotatório de disco e anel. Nas soluções de perclorato, a passivação do ferro ocorreu após o pico anódico correspondente à zona ativa, no qual foi observada a dissolução de espécies Fe2+ e Fe3+. Quando é adicionado borato à solução, tanto a densidade de corrente do pico anódico quanto a quantidade de espécies ativas de ferro solúveis diminuem. Para uma concentração constante de perclorato e borato, o aumento do pH do meio mostrou ser menos efetivo na promoção da passivação do ferro do que a presença de borato. Os resultados demonstraram que a interação entre o íon borato e a superfície eletródica ocorre por adsorção química, de acordo com a isoterma de Langmuir.The electrochemical behavior of iron in neutral solutions of perchlorate and low borate concentrations was investigated using cyclic voltammetry and the rotating ring-disc electrode techniques. In solutions containing just perchlorate, iron passivation was observed at potentials higher than the potential of an anodic peak corresponding to the active range at which the dissolution of Fe2+ and Fe3+ species was detected. When borate is added to the solution, this anodic peak decreased as well as the amount of the active soluble species. The increase of pH, keeping the borate and perchlorate concentrations constant, was found to be less effective at promoting iron passivation than the increase of borate concentration. The results demonstrated that the interaction between borate ion and the electrode surface occurs by chemical adsorption according to the Langmuir isotherm

Characterization of the film formed on iron in borate solution by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy

The passive film anodically formed on iron in 0.1 mol l−1 sodium borate solution has been evaluated by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. An equivalent circuit is assumed in order to characterize the film capacitance, the charge transfer resistance at the interfaces and the ionic flux across the film. The Mott–Schottky representation was used plotting the capacitance as a function of the applied potential. The film can be described as an n-type semiconductor with a high concentration of donors and very low ionic conduction

The performance of GARCH option pricing models : An empirical study on Swedish OMXS30 call options

The purpose of this thesis is to examine the properties for different specifications of the HestonNandi GARCH option pricing model and the pricing performance on european Swedish OMXS30 call options. The sample consists of a total of 2467 options (both in-sample and out-of-sample) for 2011 and 2012, which are priced with three specifications of the HestonNandi-GARCH model and then compared to the pricing performance of the BlackScholes model. The examination shows that the BlackScholes model performs better out-of-sample then the specifications of the HestonNandi GARCH model. All models pricing errors show significant relationship to moneyness and the term structure of the interest rate. We also confirm the findings of Heston and Nandi (2000) who states that their model is especially sensitive to the volatility of volatility and the skewness parameter.

Influência da camada de óxido formada na soldagem de aço inoxidável AISI 304, na susceptibilidade à corrosão

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Passivation of iron in solutions containing borate using rotating ring-disc measurements

Investigou-se o comportamento eletroquímico do ferro em soluções neutras de perclorato de sódio contendo pequenas concentrações de borato de sódio, através da técnica de voltametria cíclica e empregando-se eletrodo rotatório de disco e anel. Nas soluções de perclorato, a passivação do ferro ocorreu após o pico anódico correspondente à zona ativa, no qual foi observada a dissolução de espécies Fe2+ e Fe3+. Quando é adicionado borato à solução, tanto a densidade de corrente do pico anódico quanto a quantidade de espécies ativas de ferro solúveis diminuem. Para uma concentração constante de perclorato e borato, o aumento do pH do meio mostrou ser menos efetivo na promoção da passivação do ferro do que a presença de borato. Os resultados demonstraram que a interação entre o íon borato e a superfície eletródica ocorre por adsorção química, de acordo com a isoterma de Langmuir.The electrochemical behavior of iron in neutral solutions of perchlorate and low borate concentrations was investigated using cyclic voltammetry and the rotating ring-disc electrode techniques. In solutions containing just perchlorate, iron passivation was observed at potentials higher than the potential of an anodic peak corresponding to the active range at which the dissolution of Fe2+ and Fe3+ species was detected. When borate is added to the solution, this anodic peak decreased as well as the amount of the active soluble species. The increase of pH, keeping the borate and perchlorate concentrations constant, was found to be less effective at promoting iron passivation than the increase of borate concentration. The results demonstrated that the interaction between borate ion and the electrode surface occurs by chemical adsorption according to the Langmuir isotherm

Corrosion behaviour of iron and AISI 304 stainless steel in tungstate aqueous solutions containing chloride

O comportamento do ferro e do aço inoxidável AISI 304 frente à corrosão em solução aquosa de tungstato de sódio em presença de cloreto foi investigado usando as técnicas de voltametria cíclica, medidas de potencial de circuito aberto e impedância eletroquímica. Os resultados mostraram que a ação inibidora do ânion tungstato está relacionada com sua adsorção sobre a superfície eletrodódica e depende marcadamente da presença de oxigênio dissolvido no meio. Filmes formados por polarização anódica a baixas velocidades de varredura de potencial e rotação do eletrodo são mais estáveis permitindo um decréscimo na taxa de corrosão. Medidas de impedância eletroquímica em potencial de circuito aberto mostraram que a ação inibidora do tungstato é consideravelmente favorecida em tempos de imersão prolongados.The corrosion behavior of iron and AISI 304 stainless steel in aqueous tungstate solutions containing chloride ion was investigated by cyclic voltammetry, open circuit measurements and impedance spectroscopy. The obtained results point out that the inhibitive performance of tungstate depends on the presence of dissolved oxygen, being strongly related to the adsorption of this anion on the surface of the electrode. Under anodic polarization, at low sweep rate and electrode rotation the passive film is more stable and the corrosion rate decreases. At the open circuit potential, the EIS data have clearly demonstrated that for longer immersion times the tungstate inhibitive action is considerably improved

Tribocorrosion of diamond-like carbon deposited on Ti6Al4V.

Tribological and corrosion properties of Ti6Al4V alloy both bare and coated by diamond-like carbon (DLC) were investigated in PBS solution. The films obtained by a PACVD technique present high hardness, good corrosion and wear resistance and lower friction coefficient compared to bare alloy. Tribocorrosion tests on bare alloy showed that when wear stops, the alloy rapidly passivates. DLC films present superior wear resistance under dry conditions. However, film life is greatly reduced during tribocorrosion test