Bilingualism and multilingualism in the Roman world

Roman authors referred to Latin and Greek as utraque lingua (both our languages), and the study of Classics has traditionally entailed an appreciation of the entanglement and complex relations between Latin and Greek language and literature. However, the Roman world was linguistically diverse—multilingual, not bilingual. Especially since the pioneering work of James Adams (Adams 2003, cited under General Overviews), classicists have begun to engage more fully with modern bi- and multilingualism theory and practice and to explore more systematically beyond Latin and Greek, literature, and the elite. This article is designed to introduce some of the key scholarship in this rapidly expanding and important field, presenting not only recent works, but also some of the earlier research that remains influential. It begins with a selection of general overviews, which characterize the new wave and more traditional approaches. It then offers a short selection of general surveys of languages in the Roman world and introductory, influential texts in modern bilingualism studies. The rest of the article is split loosely between epigraphic regional studies, literary bilingualism, and technical linguistic studies. Discussion in the Regional Studies section makes it clear that some areas (e.g., Egypt) have a long tradition of investigation into bi- and multilingualism, whereas others remain relatively under-researched. In the largely literary sections, the focus is on Greek and Other Languages in Latin Literature, Translation Literature, and “Roman Greek”, which concentrates on the Greek of Roman writers and also considers epigraphic sources such as the senatus consulta. In these sections the viewpoint is primarily on bi- and multilingualism in literary and related sources and does not seek to encompass the wider literary scholarship. The final section, Technical Linguistic Studies, contains research related to both lexical and non-lexical contact phenomena

‘In both our languages’: Greek-Latin code-switching in Roman literature

After a short introduction to code-switching and Classics, this article offers an overview of the phenomenon of code-switching in Roman literature with some comments on possible generic restrictions, followed by a survey of Roman attitudes to the practice. The analysis then focuses on Roman letter writing and investigates code-switching in the second-century correspondence of Fronto (mainly letters between Marcus Aurelius, who became Emperor in AD 161, and his tutor Fronto). This discussion uses part of a new detailed database of Greek code-switches in Roman epistolography and is largely sociolinguistic in approach. It makes comparisons with other ancient and modern corpora where possible and highlights the value of code-switching research in responding to a range of (socio)linguistic, literary and historical questions

Sociolinguistics

This chapter begins by considering the motivations for undertaking sociolinguistic studies and discusses the range and quality of evidence that can be marshalled for early Britain. The pre-Roman linguistic situation and the advent and spread of Latin are assessed using linguistic and archaeological evidence, and the extent and nature of Latin–Celtic bilingualism across time, space, and social levels explored. A presentation of the long-standing debate on the nature of Latin spoken in Roman Britain follows, and new evidence is offered to counter the traditional view that British Latin was particularly conservative. The chapter closes by looking at the legacy of the linguistic impact of Roman Britain, briefly considering the post-Roman inscriptions and language contact phenomena in the Germanic languages

Archaeological Investigations at Bourne Park, Bishopsbourne, 2011-2014

Report on the geophysical survey

Does exercise relieve vasomotor menopausal symptoms?

Q: Does exercise relieve vasomotor menopausal symptoms? A: NO. Exercise doesn't decrease the frequency or severity of vasomotor menopausal symptoms (VMS) in perimenopausal and postmenopausal women (strength of recommendation: A, systematic review of randomized controlled trials [RCTs] and consistent RCT).Authors: Corey Lyon, DO; Rebecca Mullen, MD; Brandy Deffenbacher, MD; Alex Reed, PhD University of Colorado Family Medicine Residency, Denver; Joan Nashelsky, MLS Family Physicians Inquiries Network, Iowa City