Risk based approach for managing salt accumulation in soil irrigated with recycled water

Recycling is one of the viable options to attain sustainable management of wastewater. The supply and reuse of recycled water may play an important role in enhancing urban water supplies in many water-scarce parts of industrialised countries because of its reduced treatment cost relative to seawater desalination and imported surface water. One such reuse option includes application of recycled water for irrigating urban open fields. Past literature suggests that the continuous use of recycled water over a long period of time may lead to the accumulation of salt in the root zone. Salt transport models to quantify salt accumulation in soil exist, but these do not consider the stochastic nature of the elements of salt accumulation process. Moreover, none of the past studies propose a framework to manage and control the salt accumulation process due to recycled water irrigation by considering stochastic nature of different components. The study described in the thesis details a novel methodology adopted for the development and implementation of an integrated risk based approach to control sources of salinity and the level of treatment required to use recycled water in irrigation in a sustainable manner. The study included laboratory and field work and involved thorough investigation of site specific soil, data analysis, development of relationships among elements of salt accumulation process, and incorporated long-term prediction modelling result and scientific knowledge into a framework. One of the key investigations conducted was to understand and monitor salt accumulation process in columns using sensors in terms of depth of soil, type of soil and type of irrigation water. Data generated from these experiments and output from simulation were used to develop the framework. Therefore, the overall aim of this study was to develop a framework with the help of a probabilistic method, namely, Bayesian belief network (BBN) to manage the salinity in the root zone due to recycled water irrigation. Results from the column study show that due to recycled water irrigation, soil water electrical conductivity (ECSW) was higher in the upper part of the column (0-0.2 m) than the lower part. This is because only applied irrigation water could not leach the salt from upper part to downward. When simulated rainfall was applied (once in a week) in a loamy sand column along with recycled water (twice in a week), the average ECSW showed a decreasing pattern with time. In another column study with silty loam soil, average sodium adsorption ratio due to recycled water (EC = 0.8 dS/m) irrigation was 3.6 times more than the tap water (EC = 0.2 dS/m) irrigation and 1.4 times less than the synthetic saline water (EC = 2.0 dS/m) irrigation. In the same column study, it was observed that the ratio of soluble cations (Na+: Mg2+: Ca2+: K+) in the soil sample changed than its initial ratio at the beginning of the study. The change in the ration occurred because of exchanging cations between soil and the water added for irrigation. A salt transport model HYDRUS 1D was validated with experimental results and used to predict risk of salt accumulation in field condition. The salt transport modelling carried out in this study shows that in drought condition, yearly averages ECSW exceeded the maximum salinity tolerance threshold of 5.0 dS/m for rye pasture due to recycled water irrigation in a loamy sand paddock. The ECSW exceeded 1, 59, 79, 87 and 90% for the years from 1 to 5, respectively. In another modelling with future climate condition between years 2021 and 2040 shows that ECSW was 24% higher in loamy soil paddock compared to loamy sand paddock. Amount of leachate in the loamy sand paddock was 27% more than the amount leached from loamy paddock, which may pose a salinity risk to the ground water if there is a perched aquifer in the field at a depth < 1 m. BBN framework analyses identified that for root zone ECSW of 2.25 dS/m, it is 92% probable that the Na+ concentration of the root zone soil water would be in the range of 5 – 15 mmol(c)/L; for ECSW of 16.5 dS/m, there is 86% probability that the Na+ concentration of root zone soil water would be in the range of 30 – 35 mmol(c)/L. Furthermore, over the study period of 2021 to 2040, it was found that the reduction of the posterior mean of recycled water EC by 13% (from μ=0.92 to μ=0.8 dS/m), brings the average root zone ECSW down from 6.5 dS/m to 4 dS/m, which is within the salinity threshold limit for rye pasture. The BBN framework also identified the most significant sources of salinity contributing to wastewater and proposed control strategy of those sources to minimise the salt accumulation in the soil for a sandy loam oval irrigated with recycled water. Results show that accumulation of salt in the root zone was largely due to the salt load in the wastewater stream from washing machines and the salt load in the wastewater from toilets was the second most influential source. It was found that by controlling multiple sources at the same time significantly reduces salt accumulation in the soil. It was observed that by using environmental friendly detergents reduce the TDS load in the laundry stream by 4 to 7 times and Na+ load by 2 times than popular brand detergents. Irrigation scheduling with recycled water is typically done while considering only the soil moisture levels. The study reported in this thesis proposes that besides considering the soil moisture levels, salt accumulation within the soil must be considered while irrigating open fields using recycled water. Proposed methods and outcome of this research would provide vital knowledge about the uncertainty associated with root zone salinisation of urban open fields, and better management and control of root zone salinity due to irrigation with recycled water. The study highlighted that any strategies that help in the reduction of salt in the recycled water will be beneficial in managing the soil salinity as a result of recycled water use for irrigating open fields. Hence, the proposed decision making tool for controlling the risk of soil salinisation can assist in developing recycled water irrigation schemes which are sustainable over the long-run

Makna Filosofis Rechtstaat dalam Konteks Kebijakan Pembangunan Hukum di Indonesia

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Sumber-sumber Pendapatan dan Pengeluaran Negara Islam

One of the most urgent instrument is the existence of government as manager of the State. Through the national budget of a state, it taps revenues and expenditures will be managed in a planned manner with the aim at prosperity of all people. For example, increasing the rate of economic growth (pro-growth), expanding new jobs (pro-job), and improve protection programs for the poor (pro-poor). In the classical discourse, Islamic government that had been present in the scene of history, has also pointed out the state opinion forms. This article briefly describes the ratio of budget revenues and expenditures between Islam and the Indonesian government system.DOI: 10.15408/aiq.v5i2.256

Introduction of Pack Test for Participative Environmental Monitoring and Environmental Education for Sustainability in Malaysia

Pack Test which provided by Kyoritsu Chemical-Check Lab. Corporation has been assumed as a professional easy-to-use onsite water quality checker. The aim of this study is to examine the possibility of application of Pack Test in Malaysia, and to assess the required matters during introduction processes. Two workshops were sampled to prove the potential function of Pack Test in environmental education and participative environmental monitoring. Two hours lecture of Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) was facilitated as a workshop by author on September 23, 2010, and then the author has assisted a workshop in Putrajaya on October 9, 2010. Questionnaire forms were applied to test as if peoples feeling are positive or not towards Pack Test as preliminary research. Water quality parameters were simultaneously measured by Pack Test, such as, COD, NO3-, CI-, and NH4+ in UTM, pH and NO3- were measured in Putrajaya workshop, respectively. Participants feeling in the both workshops showed strong positive potential for Pack Test. Results of water qualities from UTM workshop had big variation in COD and NO3-. Considering the reason, the UTM workshop was conducted without proper support for both facilitator and participant. Participants were able to classify the water quality level in a short time. As for the Putrajaya workshop, with deep support and well skilled instruction by facilitator team, the data showed small variation i.e. good and consistent water quality result. It was obvious that Pack Test was always applicable to assess water environment and it was well functioned as user friendly easy-to-use water quality checker. Thereby the role of Pack Test was segregated from conventional standard methods. The participants feeling to Pack Test was strong positive for implementation and to improve public environmental awareness. Simultaneously, they were feeling that peoples can participate more effectively in water environment issues by Pack Test. It was clear that Pack Test was notable in-situ water quality checker, which has advantages over its particular methods that never rely on transport of samples to a distant laboratory for chemical analysis. Above all, it could be a breakthrough point to empower public participation, and environmental education for water sustainability. In addition, it can be pointed out that if there are chance to get skilled of the USAge of Pack Test, which will be important for teachers, engineers, and other potential facilitators to ensure the effective USAge of Pack Test towards

Wakaf dalam Islam

Salah satu instrument yang dipandang sangat urgen dan dapat mengetuk rasa empati kehidupan bermasyarakat kita kepada sesama adalah adanya unsur wakaf. Ditengarai bila saja wakaf dapat dimaksimalkan perannya, niscaya akan dapat menjadi alternative solusi masalah di tengah masyarakat. Wakaf dapat mengurangi kesenjangan antara kaya dan miskin. Wakaf dapat dipandang sebagai jembatan bagi kalangan bawah untuk dapat mengakses resources-resources perekonomian. Ia bersanding sejajar dengan instrumen zakat dalam meminimalisir angka kemiskinan dan pengangguran. Oleh sebab itu, tulisan ini mengupas secara teoritis dan dasar kajian tentang wakaf yang dapat dipertanggungjawabkan. Paling tidak ia dapat merefresh kesadaran kita tenang wakaf.DOI: 10.15408/aiq.v1i1.245

Algoritma C45 Untuk Menentukan Mahasiswa Penerima Beasiswa (Studi Kasus : Pps Iain Raden Intan Bandar Lampung)

Academic achievement of students evaluated each semester to determine learning outcomes. If the student can meet certain academic criteria to be declared worthy of continued study of the student passed the course. The high number of students in college can be maximized by Scholarship. Therefore, the number of participants who submitted many scholarships, as well as indicators of the many criteria, a system is needed that can help to determine who is entitled to receive a scholarship from the college.In this research, formulated by research question, as namely applying C.45 algorithm, which aims to select the candidates in Post Graduate Program IAIN Raden Intan Lampung to obtained the scholarship recipients with a high degree of accurance. The methodology used by the authors to determine the candidates in the Post Graduate Program IAIN Raden Intan Lampung using Algorithm stages C.45, the classification process of grantees using the five steps in the KDD (Knowledge Discovery in Databases), which includes several activities, namely selection, preprocess, transformation, data mining, interpretation and evaluation.The sample of the research are 40 (forty students) awardees at the Graduate Program IAIN Raden Intan Lampung and has been produced based on the calculation algorithm C.45 total of 18 (eighteen) students who do not deserve to be recipients for having a GPA <3.00, then as many as eight (8) students who do not deserve to be recipients because they have tenure <5 \ years and noncivil service workers, to produce as many as fourteen (14) students who deserve to be recipients forhaving met the criteria for scholarship recipients darisegi GPA, work and tenure predetermined

Kajian Matan dan Sanad Hadits dalam Metode Historis

Sanad menurut bahasa berarti sandaran, yang kita bersandar pada­ nya, dan berarti dapat diperpegangi, dipercayai. Sedangkan me­ nurut istilah, sanad berarti keseluruhan rawy dalam suatu hadits dengan sifat dan bentuk yang ada. Selanjutnya matan menurut bahasa berarti punggung jalan (muka jalan) tanah yang keras dan tinggi. Sedangkan matan menurut istilah ialah bunyi atau kalimat yang terdapat dalam hadits yang menjadi isi riwayat. Apa­ kah hadits tersebut berbentuk qaul (ucapan) fi'il (perbuatan, taqrir (ketetapan) dan sebagainya dari Rasulullah Saw. Dalam meneliti sanad sekurang-kurangnya diperlukan lima syarat yaitu: a) mencari biografi perawi, b) membahas keadilan dan ke­ dlabitan perawi, c) membahas kemuttashilan sanad (sanad yang bersambung), d) membahas syadz dan, e) membahas illat hadits; selanjutnya dalam meneliti matan maka yang harus diperhatikan adalah: a) meneliti matan dengan melihat kualitas sanadnya, b) me­ neliti susunan matan yang semakna, dan c) meneliti kandungan matan. Perkembangan dan pengaruh sanad terhadap klasifikasi hadits pada gejala umum dapat diklasifikasi bahwa sanad pada tingkat sahabat jumlahnya lebih sedikit dibanding pada tingkat tabi'in dan pada tingkat tabi'in lebih sedikit dibanding dengan tingkat tabi'it-tabi'in dan seterusnya sampai pada tingkat jumlah yang cukup banya

Empowering Parents - Innovative Policies to Improve School Quality and Funding

The current education system in Indonesia has shown limited success. While it manages to widen participation access to allow primary students and junior secondary students to enjoy basic education, with figures reaching 99% and 94% respectively (BPS, 2015), it is the quality of education that has been of concern. With the budget size available for national education, improving the quality of education is the mandate of all parties concerned. The quality of education is below expectation as attested by a number of education quality measurement indices. There has been a significant drop in the average score in the national examination between 2015 and 2016, from 61.29 to 54.78 (Antaranews, 2016). Student performance in basic school subjects such as Mathematics and Science have also seen a decline as evidenced by research conducted by Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) and Progress in International Reading Literacy Studies (PIRLS), showing the national student performance lag behind that of other countries in the world. The budget allocation for education has also been under scrutiny, where there is a discrepancy between what is expected in the raising of Indonesian teacher salaries. The raise in salary does not actually correspond to a recorded improvement of teachers as suggested by De Ree J (2012). Findings from the World Bank that suggests most of the government spending on education went to teacher allowances, at $3.5 billion out of the total education spending of$7 billion. One of the possibilities for this discrepancy is identified in the absence of the empowerment of students and their parents. In many of the cases observed, parents are yet to voice their concern over the management of the educational system. Schools do not usually attend to the needs and suggestions of parents, as schools understand that they need only to report to the government agencies responsible for education. On the other hand, parents in private school demonstratemore power to participate in education systems as schools usually recognize their role as significant sources of funding for the school. This paper argues that in order to improve the school management and quality of education, the system of school financing needs to change. Students, represented by their parents, should have the liberty to control their finances and choose the schools deemed relevant to their own needs. By handing the power to choose to the hands of the parents/students, they can be held accountable for their own choice of education. By attaching education financing to the parents/students, it is argued that the students will have more power to choose which schools will give them better services and it will also bring more accountability to students as the real beneficiaries of education (Shah and Braun-Munzinger, 2006; Astle, S. Bryant, and C. Hotham,2011; Sjunnesson, 2012). This system has been implemented in several places with varying degrees of success, in countries such as the United States, Sweden, the Netherlands, and Chile. There are four types school choice programs, namely school vouchers, education saving accounts (ESA), tax credit scholarship and individual tax credits and deduction. This paper will review the advantages and disadvantages of this program, by drawing on someexamples of best practice from some of the countries mentioned above. However, this paper will introduce and discuss the first two forms of school choice; school vouchers and Education Saving Account (ESA), as the tax credit scholarship and individual tax credits and deduction schemes use a tax-based approach which would be difficult to be implement in Indonesia since the Indonesian tax system is not as advanced as developed countries. As a study of school choice programs aimed at providing policy recommendations for the improvement of education performance in Indonesia, this paper will start by discussing the concept of school choice including school voucher and ESA programs and their respective benefits to the education system. The second section will discuss the implementation of school vouchers and ESA program worldwide and analyze success stories as well as the shortcomings in the implementation of both programs as a lesson learned for Indonesia. The last section will present some policy recommendations in order to provide policy frameworks that suit the implementation of school choice programs

Low-cost private schools (A Case Study in Jakarta)

The existence of low-cost private schools providing accessible education to low-income families in developing countries has generated a special interest in research that measures the existence of such schools in Indonesia. Their affordable tuition fees as well as satisfying quality is arguably the better alternative for marginalized families to access formal education since government initiatives on education have limited success in providing good-quality and accessible education. This paper presents an initial study of low-cost private schools in Indonesia and covers the location, cost, and quality of some of these schools. It argues in the end that the government should encourage the creation of more low-cost private schools so that they create a competitive pressure on government schools to increase their performance and their operational efficiency. In 2015, the proportion of private schools in Jakarta reached 57.08 per cent of all of the total of 5.659 schools from primary level to secondary level. Contrary to the popular belief, not all of those private schools are exclusively for the upper middle class. Some of them even play a crucial role in providing formal education to families in impoverished areas. The low-cost private schools are considered accessible by poor parents in terms of their fees, distance, and enrollment requirements. Most of the schools charge inexpensive monthly tuition fees ranging from only Rp.30,000 to Rp.130,000 per student. Besides, the schools are located nearer to the students’ residence sparing their parents from additional transport costs and from worrying about their childrens’ safety when going to school. Enrollment requirements, such as birth certificates and minimum graduation scores for secondary schools, are less strict than in public schools and are another reason why low-cost private schools are considered accessible by Indonesian parents. Meanwhile, the average monthly operational cost per student in low-cost private schools is 34 per cent lower than in public schools within the same districts and low-cost private schools also do not provide lesser quality. Students in schools that were covered in this study had significantly better national exam scores in mathematics and only slightly lower reading skills than public schools