Differences in Polyamine Content between Human Milk and Infant Formulas

Human milk is the gold standard for nutrition during the first months of life, but when breastfeeding is not possible, it may be replaced by infant formulas, either partially or totally. Polyamines, which play an important role in intestinal maturation and the development of the immune system, are found both in human milk and infant formulas, the first exogenous source of these compounds for the newborn. The aim of this study was to evaluate the occurrence and evolution of polyamines in human milk during the first semester of lactation and to compare the polyamine content with that of infant formulas. In total, 30 samples of human milk provided by six mothers during the first five months of lactation as well as 15 different types of infant formulas were analyzed using UHPLC-FL. Polyamines were detected in all human milk samples but with great variation among mothers. Spermidine and spermine levels tended to decrease during the lactation period, while putrescine remained practically unchanged. Considerable differences were observed in the polyamine contents and profiles between human milk and infant formulas, with concentrations being up to 30 times lower in the latter. The predominant polyamines in human milk were spermidine and spermine, and putrescine in infant formulas. Keywords: polyamines, putrescine, spermidine, spermine, human milk, breastfeeding, infant formula

Polyamines in Food

The polyamines spermine, spermidine, and putrescine are involved in various biological processes, notably in cell proliferation and differentiation, and also have antioxidant properties. Dietary polyamines have important implications in human health, mainly in the intestinal maturation and in the differentiation and development of immune system. The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effect of polyamine can also play an important role in the prevention of chronic diseases such as cardiovascular diseases. In addition to endogenous synthesis, food is an important source of polyamines. Although there are no recommendations for polyamine daily intake, it is known that in stages of rapid cell growth (i.e., in the neonatal period), polyamine requirements are high. Additionally, de novo synthesis of polyamines tends to decrease with age, which is why their dietary sources acquire a greater importance in an aging population. Polyamine daily intake differs among to the available estimations, probably due to different dietary patterns and methodologies of data collection. Polyamines can be found in all types of foods in a wide range of concentrations. Spermidine and spermine are naturally present in food whereas putrescine could also have a microbial origin. The main polyamine in plant-based products is spermidine, whereas spermine content is generally higher in animal-derived foods. This article reviews the main implications of polyamines for human health, as well as their content in food and breast milk and infant formula. In addition, the estimated levels of polyamines intake in different populations are provided

Occurrence of Polyamines in Foods and the Influence of Cooking Processes

Dietary polyamines are involved in different aspects of human health and play an important role in the prevention of certain chronic conditions such as cardiovascular diseases and diabetes. Different polyamines can be found in all foods in variable amounts. Moreover, several culinary practices have been reported to modify the content and profile of these bioactive compounds in food although experimental data are still scarce and even contradictory. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the occurrence of polyamines in a large range of foods and to assess the effect of different cooking processes on the polyamine content of a few of them. The highest level of polyamines was found in wheat germ (440.6 mg/kg). Among foods of a plant origin, high levels of total polyamines over 90 mg/kg were determined in mushrooms, green peppers, peas, citrus fruit, broad beans and tempeh with spermidine being predominant (ranging from 54 to 109 mg/kg). In foods of an animal origin, the highest levels of polyamines, above all putrescine (42-130 mg/kg), were found in raw milk, hard and blue cheeses and in dry-fermented sausages. Regarding the influence of different domestic cooking processes, polyamine levels in food were reduced by up to 64% by boiling and grilling but remained practically unmodified by microwave and sous-vide cooking

Influence of breastfeeding factors on polyamine content in human milk

The polyamine content of human breast milk, which is the first exogenous source of polyamines for the newborn, can be affected by several factors associated with the mother, the infant, or breastfeeding itself. The aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of different breastfeeding factors on the polyamines found in human milk. For this study, a cohort of 83 mothers was considered for up to 4 months, and a subgroup of 33 mothers were followed during the first six months of breastfeeding. Two breast milk samples were collected at each sampling point (foremilk and hindmilk) and the polyamine content was determined by UHPLC-FL. Polyamine levels varied considerably between the mothers and tended to decrease over time. Putrescine was the minor polyamine, whereas spermidine and spermine contents were very similar. The concentrations of the three polyamines were significantly higher in hindmilk than foremilk (p < 0.001). Spermidine and spermine levels decreased significantly through the lactation progress (p < 0.05). Finally, slightly higher levels of polyamines were observed in the milk of mothers providing partial, rather than full, breastfeeding, although the differences were not significant. The polyamine content in human milk was found to change during a single feed (foremilk versus hindmilk) and as lactation progressed, mainly in response to the specific circumstances of the newborn

Influence of the Type of Breastfeeding and Human Milk Polyamines on Infant Anthropometric Parameters

Feeding choices in the early months of life are key determinants of growth during infancy. Polyamines participate in cell proliferation and differentiation, and it has also been suggested that polyamine metabolism plays a role in adipogenesis. As the main exogenous source of polyamines in the infant is human milk, the aim of this work was to study if the type of breastfeeding received and the polyamine intake from human milk has an influence on infant anthropometric parameters. A cohort of 78 full-term healthy newborns was followed up until 4 months of age; 55 were fully and 23 partially breastfed. Anthropometric measurements were taken at 2 and 4 months, when human milk samples were also collected for analysis of polyamine content by UHPLC-FL. Fully breastfed infants had a better anthropometric profile than those partially breastfed (p < 0.05). Furthermore, polyamine intake in partially breastfed infants was significantly lower compared to those fully breastfed. However, only two of the 15 anthropometric indicators evaluated (triceps skinfold and mean upper arm circumference) showed a significant inverse association with polyamine content in human milk and intake (p < 0.05). Infant growth and body composition differ according to the type of breastfeeding received. Based on the weak associations between polyamines and anthropometric indicators, it is not possible to conclude the influence of polyamines in infant growth and body composition

Polyamines in Human Milk and Their Benefits for Infant Health

Breastfeeding is the gold standard for infant nutrition in the first six months of life when feeding choices determine growth and development. However, human milk is a complex and highly variable fluid that, in addition to nutrients, contains several bioactive components, including polyamines (putrescine, spermidine, and spermine), and constitutes the first exogenous source of these compounds for infants. Active in various cellular processes, polyamines are involved in the growth and maturation of the gastrointestinal tract and the development of the immune system and therefore play an important role in the first year of life. This chapter reviews the impact of polyamines on infant growth and health, the polyamine content in human milk and how it is influenced by factors related to both the mother-child dyad and breastfeeding itself. In addition, a comparative analysis of human milk and infant formulas in terms of polyamine content and profile is presented

Poliaminas en alimentos, leche materna y fórmulas infantiles

[eng] The polyamines putrescine, spermidine, and spermine are a group of molecules that are ubiquitously distributed in all living organisms. Polyamines have several implications in human health, mainly in the early stages of life, since they participate in intestinal maturation and in the development of the immune system. Due to their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effect, polyamines play an important role in the prevention of chronic diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, obesity and diabetes, and are also associated with a longer life expectancy. In addition to endogenous synthesis, food is the main exogenous source of polyamines in humans. Although there are still no recommendations for the intake of polyamines, it is known that, in stages of rapid cell growth, such as the neonatal or infant stage, as well as during wound healing processes, the requirements of polyamines increase. During aging the endogenous synthesis of polyamines decreases, so that dietary polyamines acquire greater relevance. Therefore, one of the objectives of this doctoral thesis was to study the qualitative and quantitative composition of polyamines in different foods and also to evaluate the effect of different culinary treatments on the polyamine content of some foods rich in these components, with the aim of in the future to be able to propose recommendations for the enrichment of the diet with these compounds. Human milk is the first exogenous source of polyamines in humans, since these compounds are synthesized in the mammary gland during pregnancy and lactation. In this sense, it has been suggested that the presence of polyamines in human milk may be influenced by several factors related to the mother-child dyad (i.e., genetic, origin, dietary intake and nutritional status of the mother's and/or type of delivery), as well as with the breastfeeding process itself (i.e., month, time of day, chosen breast and/or presence of infection). In this context, another objective of this thesis was to study the content, profile and evolution of polyamines in human milk throughout breastfeeding, as well as the influence of different factors associated with breastfeeding on their contents in human milk. On the other hand, when breastfeeding is not possible, infant formulas are the appropriate food products to replace human milk partially or totally. Therefore, in another part of this thesis, the content and profile of polyamines of different infant formulas available in the market were also evaluated, and they were compared with human milk.[spa] Las poliaminas putrescina, espermidina y espermina son un grupo de moléculas que se distribuyen de forma ubicua en todos los organismos vivos. Las poliaminas tienen diversas implicaciones la salud humana, principalmente en las primeras etapas de la vida, ya que participan en la maduración intestinal y en el desarrollo del sistema inmune. Debido a su efecto antioxidante y antiinflamatorio, las poliaminas juegan un papel importante en la prevención de enfermedades crónicas como en patologías cardiovasculares, obesidad y diabetes, y también se asocian con una mayor esperanza de vida. Además de la síntesis endógena, los alimentos son la principal fuente exógena de poliaminas en el ser humano. A pesar de que todavía no existen recomendaciones de ingesta de poliaminas, se sabe que, en etapas de rápido crecimiento celular, como la etapa neonatal o lactante, así como durante procesos de cicatrización de heridas, los requerimientos de poliaminas aumentan. Durante el envejecimiento la síntesis endógena de poliaminas disminuye, por lo que las poliaminas dietéticas adquieren una mayor relevancia. Por lo que uno de los objetivos de esta tesis doctoral fue estudiar la composición cuanti y cualitativa de poliaminas en diferentes alimentos y evaluar el efecto de diferentes tratamientos culinarios en el contenido de poliaminas de algunos alimentos ricos en estos componentes, con la finalidad de en el futuro poder plantear recomendaciones de enriquecimiento de la dieta con estos compuestos. La leche materna es la primera fuente exógena de poliaminas en el ser humano, ya que estos compuestos se sintetizan en la glándula mamaria durante el embarazo y la lactancia. En este sentido, se ha sugerido que la presencia de poliaminas en la leche materna puede estar influenciada por diversos factores relacionados con la díada madre-hijo (origen genético, ingesta dietética y/o el estado nutricional de la madre, tipo de parto), así como con el propio proceso de lactancia (mes, la hora del día, el seno elegido y/o la presencia de infección). En este contexto, otro objetivo de esta tesis fue estudiar el contenido, perfil y evolución de las poliaminas en leche materna a lo largo de la lactancia, así como la influencia de diferentes factores asociados a la lactancia en los contenidos de estos compuestos en la leche materna. Por otro lado, cuando la lactancia materna no es posible, las fórmulas infantiles son los productos alimenticios adecuados para reemplazar, de forma parcial o total, a la leche materna. Por lo que en otra parte de esta tesis también se evaluó el contenido y perfil de poliaminas de diferentes fórmulas infantiles disponibles en el mercado, y se compararon con la leche materna. Por otra parte, teniendo en cuenta la relevancia de las poliaminas en los procesos de crecimiento celular, así como su posible participación en la regulación de la adipogénesis, en el marco de esta tesis también se estudió la existencia de alguna asociación entre el contenido de poliaminas de la leche materna y la composición corporal de la madre y del lactante. Además, debido a la relación entre ciertas hormonas reguladoras del apetito y los indicadores antropométricos de crecimiento y composición corporal del lactante, también se exploró la posible asociación entre los niveles de leptina y grelina y los de poliaminas en leche materna

Serum concentration of appetite‐regulating hormones of mother–infant dyad according to the type of feeding

Satiety and appetite‐stimulating hormones play a role in the regulation of food intake. Breastfed infants may have a different profile of serum appetite‐regulating hormones than formula‐fed infants. We propose to demonstrate that the serum concentration of appetite regulatory hormones differs according to the type of feeding and that there is a correlation between the serum concentrations of these hormones in mothers and in infants at 4 months of age. In a cross‐sectional analysis, 167 mother–newborn dyads at the Hospital Civil de Guadalajara were enrolled: 74 full breastfeeding (FBF), 56 partial breastfeeding (PBF), and 37 receiving human milk substitutes (HMS). Serum levels of ghrelin (pg/ml), leptin (ng/ml), peptide YY (pg/ml), and glucagon‐like peptide‐1 (GLP‐1) (pM) were measured. We performed one‐way analysis of variance, unpaired Student t test, post hoc Tukey test, and Pearson correlation. The total sample at 16 weeks postpartum included 167 dyads. The mean age was 16 ± 1 weeks. The concentrations of GLP‐1 (pM) and peptide YY (pg/ml) were higher in the FBF group (42.6 and 442.9) than in the HMS group (35.2 and 401.9), respectively, p = 0.046 and p = 0.056. And, the FBF group had higher correlation coefficients of ghrelin (r = 0.411 vs. 0.165), GLP‐1 (r = 0.576 vs. 0.407), and peptide YY (r = 0.218 vs. 0.067), respectively, than the HMS group. The concentrations of GLP‐1 and peptide YY were higher in the FBF group when compared with the HMS group. Mother–infant dyads fed by FBF had more significant direct correlations of appetite‐regulating hormones than those who received HMS

Serum concentration of appetite‐regulating hormones of mother–infant dyad according to the type of feeding

Satiety and appetite‐stimulating hormones play a role in the regulation of food intake. Breastfed infants may have a different profile of serum appetite‐regulating hormones than formula‐fed infants. We propose to demonstrate that the serum concentration of appetite regulatory hormones differs according to the type of feeding and that there is a correlation between the serum concentrations of these hormones in mothers and in infants at 4 months of age. In a cross‐sectional analysis, 167 mother–newborn dyads at the Hospital Civil de Guadalajara were enrolled: 74 full breastfeeding (FBF), 56 partial breastfeeding (PBF), and 37 receiving human milk substitutes (HMS). Serum levels of ghrelin (pg/ml), leptin (ng/ml), peptide YY (pg/ml), and glucagon‐like peptide‐1 (GLP‐1) (pM) were measured. We performed one‐way analysis of variance, unpaired Student t test, post hoc Tukey test, and Pearson correlation. The total sample at 16 weeks postpartum included 167 dyads. The mean age was 16 ± 1 weeks. The concentrations of GLP‐1 (pM) and peptide YY (pg/ml) were higher in the FBF group (42.6 and 442.9) than in the HMS group (35.2 and 401.9), respectively, p = 0.046 and p = 0.056. And, the FBF group had higher correlation coefficients of ghrelin (r = 0.411 vs. 0.165), GLP‐1 (r = 0.576 vs. 0.407), and peptide YY (r = 0.218 vs. 0.067), respectively, than the HMS group. The concentrations of GLP‐1 and peptide YY were higher in the FBF group when compared with the HMS group. Mother–infant dyads fed by FBF had more significant direct correlations of appetite‐regulating hormones than those who received HMS