The Energy Mix Concentration Index (EMCI): Methodological considerations for implementation

The Energy Mix Concentration Index (EMCI)is a quantitative indicator of concentration of the energy mix based upon the Herfindahl-Hirschman Index. We use the EMCI to compare the evolution of the diversification (versus concentration)of energy mixes in the long-term in order to reveal the transformations of the energy structures which determine energy transitions. In this methodological paper we make explicit how to aggregate the energy sources in order to calculate the EMCI, including questions of detail such us the level of aggregation and the transformation of primary electricity to add it up to total consumption. We present alternative figures that illustrate some additional aspects of the relation of the EMCI to total consumption, consumption per capita and energy annual growth. We also show the sensitivity of the indicator to alternative specifications (with and without pre-modern energy sources)and alternative data sets, proving its robustness. • Indicate how to aggregate energy carriers in the calculation of a quantitative index of concentration of the energy mix. • Compare alternative specifications (with or without pre-modern energy carriers). • EMCI focus on the major energy sources in the energy systems

200 years diversifying the energy mix? Diversification paths of the energy baskets of European early comers vs. latecomers

The changes in the composition of the energy basket in the long run lead to energy transitions. Primary energy substitution models allow addressing these phenomena. However, the diversification paths of the energy mix of different countries in a long term compared perspective have not been studied yet. This paper proposes an indicator, based on the Herfindahl‐Hirschman Index, the Energy Mix Concentration Index (EMCI), to quantify the degree of diversification of the primary energy basket of eight European countries over the last two centuries. The results reveal that early comers, which are large energy consumers, required a huge concentration of their energy basket in the 19th century; however, the observed countries had converged to similar levels of diversification of their energy mixes from the second half of the 20th century, and more crucially after the oil crises. For some countries, today’s degree of diversification is the largest in their energy histories, but it is not the case for all of them. Our results suggest that small energy consuming countries would be able to achieve higher diversification, and therefore to do a faster transition to a low carbon economy, than large energy consumer

Las redes Transeuropeas de energía como apoyo al proceso de adhesión de Turquía

Turkey is participating in a number of projects included in the list of Trans-European Energy Networks. Turkey's energy infrastructure has gradually grown in importance, as the accession process has progressed, culminating in the opening of the TransEuropean Networks chapter in December 2007, which was recognition of the country’s level of harmonization on the subject. The specific feature in this area is that what is at stake for the EU is rather more than a candidate country’s simply transposing the acquis communautaire. The issue is the participation and involvement of a country which is geostrategically crucial to Europe’s energy routes, and a country which can make a substantial contribution to the diversification and security of the EU's energy supplies. Thus, this extra value represents a key factor in favor of Turkey's integration. If the EU wants to count on Turkey in this endeavour it needs to keep it duly committed and provide it with adequate incentives. For Turkey this means fulfilling its aspirations of full membership. The issue is that these two processes seem to be running at a different pace and to different timescales, making it probable that, in the medium term, the accession process will continue to be delayed, while the development of Turkey's energy infrastructure presses ahead. However, in the long term, the outcome of the accession process will be the determining factor for the EU's energy issues and network projects.Turquía es uno de los participantes en los proyectos de las Redes Transeuropeas de Energía. La importancia de las infraestructuras energéticas turcas ha crecido gradualmente conforme avanzaba el proceso de adhesión, culminando con la apertura del capítulo de Redes Transeuropeas en diciembre de 2007, lo que implicaba un reconocimiento de su nivel de armonización en esta materia. Lo que está en juego para la UE en este caso es bastante más que la mera transposición del acervo comunitario por parte de un país candidato. Lo que está en juego es la participación e implicación de un país que es crucial para las rutas energéticas europeas desde el punto de vista geoestratégico, puesto que las rutas que pasan por Turquía pueden contribuir de forma sustancial a la diversificación y, por tanto, a la seguridad del abastecimiento europeo de energía. Esta contribución puede ser un factor clave a favor de la adhesión de Turquía al club europeo. Si la UE quiere contar para ello con Turquía, necesita mantenerla debidamente comprometida mediante la necesaria provisión de incentivos adecuados. Para Turquía esto significa estar en posición de cumplir sus aspiraciones de ser un miembro de pleno derecho de la UE. Sin embargo, estos dos procesos (las redes transeuropeas de energía y la adhesión a la UE) parecen avanzar a distinto ritmo y con diferentes horizontes temporales, haciendo probable que a medio plazo el acceso de Turquía a la UE siga retrasándose, mientras que el desarrollo de las infraestructuras energéticas turcas siga presionando hacia delante. No obstante, hay que tener en cuenta que en el largo plazo el resultado del proceso de adhesión será un factor determinante para las cuestiones energéticas de la UE y los proyectos de redes transeuropeas.Instituto Complutense de Estudios InternacionalesTRUEpu

A methodological proposal to quantify the geopolitical dimension of energy security

El objetivo de este artículo es desarrollar un método para estimar cuantitativamente el riesgo de abastecimiento energético de carácter geopolítico que proporcione una alternativa más rigurosa que el uso habitual de escenarios futuros basados en probabilidades subjetivas. Utilizando el análisis factorial se han identificado cuatro factores parciales de riesgo energético (económico, político, social y del propio sector energético) que se agregan para calcular el Índice de Riesgo Energético de origen Socioeconómico (IRES). Este estimador de la seguridad energética de un país o de un corredor puede también usarse en la construcción de modelos y escenarios

A methodological proposal to quantify the geopolitical dimension of energy security

El objetivo de este artículo es desarrollar un método para estimar cuantitativamente el riesgo de abastecimiento energético de carácter geopolítico que proporcione una alternativa más rigurosa que el uso habitual de escenarios futuros basados en probabilidades subjetivas. Utilizando el análisis factorial se han identificado cuatro factores parciales de riesgo energético (económico, político, social y del propio sector energético) que se agregan para calcular el Índice de Riesgo Energético de origen Socioeconómico (IRES). Este estimador de la seguridad energética de un país o de un corredor puede también usarse en la construcción de modelos y escenarios.This article aims to develop a method of quantitatively estimating the geopolitical risk of energy supply as a rigorous alternative to the use of future scenarios based on subjective probabilities. Using factor analysis, four partial risk factors have been identified (economic, political, social and energy-specific) that were aggregated into a composite Socioeconomic Energy Risk Index (SERI). This indicator of a country’s or a corridor’s energy security of supply can also be usefully employed in model and scenario building

Optimization of brain organoids as models for the study of neurodegenerative diseases

ABSTRACTMotivation: One of the current challenges faced by neuroscience is the limited availability of in vitro models of neurodegenerative diseases, as there are notable anatomical and molecular differences among murine and human brain. As a result, significant efforts have been made towards the development of new models based on human cells, with cerebral organoids standing out as a particularly promising approach. Brain organoids are 3D models usually developed from induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) that simulate the composition and cytoarchitecture of different regions of the human brain. They may allow us to obtain in vitro information about the human brain, which makes them a valuable model for investigating neurodegenerative diseases. Nevertheless, they present disadvantages associated with the absence of essential components for their development and functionality. Therefore, we will investigate the effect of incorporating an extracellular matrix (ECM) from human and pig brain into the culture of these organoids, as it contains specific combinations of components that play a role in multiple neuronal processes. On the other hand, in order to find the optimal model for generating this organoids, two protocols, Lancaster (1) and Rosebrock (2), have been compared. Lancaster’s protocol is the most cited for brain organoids, but following it, other embryonic layers are developed. Rosebrock’s protocol, is a modification of the Lancaster’s protocol, in which SMAD pathway inhibitors are used to avoid the formation of non-ectodermal layers.Methods: We generated brain organoids from iPSC, following two protocols: Lancaster (1) and Rosebrock (2). Two ECM conditions were used during cultures: Matrigel versus ECM obtained from pig brain. Subsequently, the addition of human ECM will be tested. Finally, organoids are being characterized using different techniques such as immunofluorescence, RT-PCR and expression arrays.Results: We have found molecular differences among brain organoids obtained following the different protocols, as those obtained following Rosebrock’s protocol express fewer endodermal and mesodermal markers than those obtained with Lancaster's protocol. As well, we have identified different features between those organoids matured with ECM and those matured only with Matrigel, the former being larger than the latter. Further studies will discern whether there are other relevant differences between the models

Preclinical evaluation of the safety and potency of neural stem cells from the germinal zone (Gz-NSC) for the treatment of intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH) consequences.

Motivation: Intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH) is a common cause of morbidity and mortality in premature infants with no available treatment. After IVH, there is a rupture of the germinal zone into the ventricles that entail the loss of neural stem cells (Gz-NSC). These Gz-NSC can be retrieved from the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of IVH patients, obtained after the therapeutic neuroendoscopic lavage performed in these patients to decrease intracranial pressure and that is usually discarded. We have found that Gz-NSC have the potential to differentiate into neuroblasts, oligodendrocyte precursors and few astrocytes when grafted into human brain organoids from iPSCs and mouse brains (1,2). We are evaluating the safety and efficacy profile of CSF-derived Gz-NSC in order to develop a cell therapy for IVH patients.Methods: To examine the differentiation potency of Gz-NSC, we used immunofluorescence assays, fluorescence microspy techniques and computer analysis (ImageJ) to expand previous data, increase sample size, and quantify cell differentiation of grafted Gz-NSC cells in mouse brains and human brain organoids derived from iPSCs.To study the safety profile, flow cytometry assays were carried on to analyze Gz-NSC cell proliferation (Ki67) and immunogenicity (CD80,CD86,CD40, major histocompatibility complex class II (MHC-II)).Results: Based on the immunofluorescence assays, we have found less cells expressing doublecortin, an immature neural protein, and more cells expressing parvalbumin, an interneuron marker, in human brain organoids compared to animal models, suggesting that host can influence cell fate.On the other hand, in order to study the immunogenicity of the Gz-NSC (safety profile), we have analyzed the expression of MHC-II and co-stimulatory molecules (CD80, CD86, CD40) in Gz-NSC before and after in vitro differentiation. Flow cytometry assays revealed Gz-NSC do not express co-stimulatory molecules and express different levels of MHC-II that are reduced when differentiated in vitro, which decreases the probability of an immune response in a future Gz-NSC based cell therapyConclusions: Taking into account that Gz-NSC have the potency to differentiate to a wide range of cerebral cell linages in both, human organoids and animal models, and are weakly immunogenic, an autologous Gz-NSC cell therapy could be a promising opportunity for IVH patients to overcome some of the neurocognitive problems associated to their condition