A DECOMPOSITION APPROACH TO ASSESS ILUC RESULTS FROM GLOBAL MODELING EFFORTS

Environmental Economics and Policy, Resource /Energy Economics and Policy,

\ud Detection and Monitoring of Insecticide Resistance in Malaria Vectors in Tanzania Mainland\ud

\ud Vector control is a major component of the global strategy for malaria control which aims to prevent parasite transmission mainly through interventions targeting adult Anopheline vectors. Insecticide treated nets (ITNs) and indoor residual spraying (IRS) are the cornerstone of malaria vector control programmes. These major interventions in most cases use pyrethroid insecticides which are also used for agricultural purposes. With widespread development of resistance to pyrethroid insecticides in malaria vectors raises concern over the sustainability of insecticide-based interventions for malaria control. Therefore, close monitoring of performance of the insecticides against malaria vectors is essential for early detection and\ud management of resistance. To measure pyrethroid susceptibility in populations of malaria vectors in Tanzania and to test the efficacy of LLINs/ITNs and insecticide residues on sprayed wall substrates in the IRS operation areas. In 2011 the National Institute for Medical Research (NIMR) in collaboration with National Malaria Control Programme (NMCP) conducted large scale surveillance to determine the countrywide susceptibility levels of malaria vectors to insecticides used for both public health and agricultural purposes. Anopheles gambiae Giles s.l. were collected during national surveys and samples of LLINs/ITNs in the 14 sentinel sites and houses from the IRS areas were randomly selected for bioassays to test the efficacy and insecticide residual effects on sprayed wall substrates respectively. Wild adult mosquitoes for susceptibility testing were collected by resting catches indoors. Net traps (outdoors and indoors) were set up to enhance catches. WHO Susceptibility kits were used to test for resistance status using test papers: Lambdacyhalothrin 0.05%, Deltamethrin 0.05%, Permethrin 0.75%, DDT 4%, Propoxur 0.1% and Fenitrothion 1%. The quality of the test paper was checked against a laboratory susceptible An. gambiae Kisumu strain. Knockdown effect and mortality were measured in standard WHO susceptibility tests and cone bio-efficacy tests. Whereas, con bioassays on treated walls and ITNs were conducted using the laboratory susceptible An. gambiae Kisumu strain. The results from the surveillance recorded continued susceptibility of malaria vectors to commonly used insecticides. However, there were some isolated cases of resistance and/or reduced susceptibility to pyrethroid insecticides which may not compromise the current vector control interventions in the country. Anopheles gambiae s.l. showed resistance (15-28%) to each of the pyrethroids and to DDT but not to Organophosphates (Propoxur 0.1%), and Carbamates (Fenitrothion 1%). The information obtained from this surveillance is expected to be used to guide the National Malaria Control Programme on the rational selection of insecticides for malaria vector control and for the national mitigation plans for management and containment of malaria vector resistance in the country. The current observation warrants more vigilant monitoring of the susceptibility of malaria mosquitoes to commonly used insecticides in areas found with resistance and/or reduced levels of susceptibility of malaria vectors to insecticides, particularly in areas with heavy agricultural and/or public health use of insecticides where resistance is likely to develop. The current survey covered malaria vectors only and not the non malaria vectors (nuisance) mosquitoes such as Culex. Similar monitoring of insecticide susceptibility of this non malaria vectors may be needed to ensure public motivation for sustained use of ITNs/LLINs in the country. The surveillance leading to these results received funding from PMI/USAID through RTI International with Sub Agreement Number 33300212555.\u

The Brazilian ethanol industry: an overview of its production, technology, location, land use, regulations, and futures prospects.

Brazilian ethanol has been used as biofuel since the 1970s, and currently is replacing approximately 40% of the gasoline that would be otherwise consumed in the country. Domestic demand for Brazilian ethanol is increasing as well as its exports since the biofuels are being promoted by governments around the world as an alternative to fossil fuel. In this context, the main objective of this paper is to do a descriptive and exploratory analysis of the Brazilian ethanol production system and the potential of biofuels in Brazil. We overview the recent developments in the ethanol industry with regard to ethanol technologies in Brazil (including new varieties, transgenic varieties, cellulosic technology), and the role of the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA) research in this area. We examine the government promoting policies and their impacts on land use such as the increase across time and space in sugar cane area planted in the states of São Paulo, Paraná, Minas Gerais, Goiás and Mato Grosso do Sul (the main producers) and its consequences for other crops in these producing areas and for food security

Durability associated efficacy of long-lasting insecticidal nets after five years of household use

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) have been strongly advocated for use to prevent malaria in sub-Saharan Africa and have significantly reduced human-vector contact. PermaNet^®2.0 is among the five LLINs brands which have been given full approval by the WHO Pesticide Evaluation Scheme (WHOPES). The LLINs are expected to protect the malaria endemic communities, but a number of factors within the community can affect their durability and efficacy. This study evaluated the durability, efficacy and retention of PermaNet^®2.0 after five years of use in a Tanzanian community.</p> <p>Method</p> <p>Two to three day- old non blood-fed female mosquitoes from an insectary susceptible colony (<it>An. gambiae </it>s.s, this colony was established at TPRI from Kisumu, Kenya in 1992) and wild mosquito populations (<it>An. arabiensis </it>and <it>Culex quinquefasciatus</it>) were used in cone bioassay tests to assess the efficacy of mosquito nets.</p> <p>Findings</p> <p>The knockdown effect was recorded after three minutes of exposure, and mortality was recorded after 24 hours post-exposure. Mortality of <it>An. gambiae </it>s.s from insectary colony was 100% while <it>An. arabiensis </it>and <it>Cx.quinquefasciatus </it>wild populations had reduced mortality. Insecticide content of the new (the bed net of the same brand but never used before) and used PermaNet^®2.0 was determined using High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC).</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>The results of this study suggest that, in order to achieve maximum protection against malaria, public health education focusing on bed net use and maintenance should be incorporated into the mass distribution of nets in communities.</p

Climate change impacts on agriculture, livestock and food security in Senegal

201

Protective Efficacy of Menthol Propylene Glycol Carbonate Compared to N, N-diethyl-Methylbenzamide Against Mosquito Bites in Northern Tanzania.

The reduction of malaria parasite transmission by preventing human-vector contact is critical in lowering disease transmission and its outcomes. This underscores the need for effective and long lasting arthropod/insect repellents. Despite the reduction in malaria transmission and outcomes in Tanzania, personal protection against mosquito bites is still not well investigated. This study sought to determine the efficacy of menthol propylene glycol carbonate (MR08), Ocimum suave as compared to the gold standard repellent N, N-diethyl-methylbenzamide (DEET), either as a single dose or in combination (blend), both in the laboratory and in the field against Anopheles gambiae s.l and Culex quinquefasciatus. In the laboratory evaluations, repellents were applied on one arm while the other arm of the same individual was treated with a base cream. Each arm was separately exposed in cages with unfed female mosquitoes. Repellents were evaluated either as a single dose or as a blend. Efficacy of each repellent was determined by the number of mosquitoes that landed and fed on treated arms as compared to the control or among them. In the field, evaluations were performed by human landing catches at hourly intervals from 18:00  hr to 01:00  hr. A total of 2,442 mosquitoes were collected during field evaluations, of which 2,376 (97.30%) were An. gambiae s.l while 66 (2.70%) were Cx. quinquefaciatus. MR08 and DEET had comparatively similar protective efficacy ranging from 92% to 100 for both single compound and blends. These findings indicate that MR08 has a similar protective efficacy as DEET for personal protection outside bed nets when used singly and in blends. Because of the personal protection provided by MR08, DEET and blends as topical applicants in laboratory and field situations, these findings suggest that, these repellents could be used efficiently in the community to complement existing tools. Overall, Cx. quinquefasciatus were significantly prevented from blood feeding compared to An. gambiae s.l. The incorporation of these topical repellents for protection against insect bites can be of additional value in the absence or presence of IRS and ITNs coverage. However, a combination of both the physical (bed nets) and the repellent should be used in an integrated manner for maximum protection, especially before going to bed. Additional research is needed to develop repellents with longer duration of protection

Using molecular data for epidemiological inference: assessing the prevalence of Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense in Tsetse in Serengeti, Tanzania

Background: Measuring the prevalence of transmissible Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense in tsetse populations is essential for understanding transmission dynamics, assessing human disease risk and monitoring spatio-temporal trends and the impact of control interventions. Although an important epidemiological variable, identifying flies which carry transmissible infections is difficult, with challenges including low prevalence, presence of other trypanosome species in the same fly, and concurrent detection of immature non-transmissible infections. Diagnostic tests to measure the prevalence of T. b. rhodesiense in tsetse are applied and interpreted inconsistently, and discrepancies between studies suggest this value is not consistently estimated even to within an order of magnitude. Methodology/Principal Findings: Three approaches were used to estimate the prevalence of transmissible Trypanosoma brucei s.l. and T. b. rhodesiense in Glossina swynnertoni and G. pallidipes in Serengeti National Park, Tanzania: (i) dissection/microscopy; (ii) PCR on infected tsetse midguts; and (iii) inference from a mathematical model. Using dissection/microscopy the prevalence of transmissible T. brucei s.l. was 0% (95% CI 0–0.085) for G. swynnertoni and 0% (0–0.18) G. pallidipes; using PCR the prevalence of transmissible T. b. rhodesiense was 0.010% (0–0.054) and 0.0089% (0–0.059) respectively, and by model inference 0.0064% and 0.00085% respectively. Conclusions/Significance: The zero prevalence result by dissection/microscopy (likely really greater than zero given the results of other approaches) is not unusual by this technique, often ascribed to poor sensitivity. The application of additional techniques confirmed the very low prevalence of T. brucei suggesting the zero prevalence result was attributable to insufficient sample size (despite examination of 6000 tsetse). Given the prohibitively high sample sizes required to obtain meaningful results by dissection/microscopy, PCR-based approaches offer the current best option for assessing trypanosome prevalence in tsetse but inconsistencies in relating PCR results to transmissibility highlight the need for a consensus approach to generate meaningful and comparable data

Feed, food and fuel: Competition and potential impacts on small-scale crop-livestock-energy farming systems

CGIAR System-wide Livestock Programm

Boundary work: becoming middle class in suburban Dar es Salaam

Suburban space provides a useful window onto contemporary class practices in Africa, where it is difficult to identify social classes on the basis of income or occupation. In this article I argue that the middle classes and the suburbs are mutually constitutive in the Tanzanian city of Dar es Salaam. Using interviews with residents and local government officials in the city's northern suburbs, I discuss the material and representational practices of middle-class boundary work in relation to land and landscape. If the middle classes do not presently constitute a coherent political-economic force, they are nevertheless transforming the city's former northern peri-urban zones into desirable suburban residential neighbourhoods