Implementation of the National Environment Policy: A case of the Local Government Authorities in Dar Es Salaam City- Tanzania

The government of Tanzania, with the support of a wide range of donors is implementing Local Government Reform Programmes. The three municipal councils of Ilala, Temeke and Kinondoni are among the Local government institutions in the 1st phase of the programme. The programme is one of the decentralized measures to improve service delivery at the local level, which includes management of the environment. The programmes are aimed at replacing the former control and command system of central government with a decentralized system that allocates authority and responsibility to local authorities. The study is concerned with the process of the implementation of the National Environment Policy (NEP) in the decentralised Local Government Councils in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. It analyses whether the shift of central government power to decentralised government units at the municipal level results, in successful implementation of public policies, especially the National Environment Policy. The study is a comparative, case-oriented one in which Ilala; Kinondoni and Temekemunicipalities are the cases. Qualitative approach of doing social research was employed in which interviews were conducted in the data collection phase. In examining the implementation of NEP, both top-down and bottom-up approaches are used. In the top-down approach the analysis is presented by looking at the policy itself and examines the extent to which objectives of the National Environment policy are achieved/not achieved across cases and possible explanations for the outcomes. In the bottom-up approach, the study examines the network of actors participating in service provision in the cases and asks about their goals, strategies, and activities in relation to environmental management issues.The main findings in the study are that linkages between decentralisation and implementation of the National Environment Policy are weak. This is because there is poor institutional structure, inappropriate legal framework and insufficient technical personnel. Local government councils in Dar-es-Salaam have defined improvement of service delivery and management of environment as one of its developmental priorities. In the National Environment policy document, local councils are supposed to have environmental committees from the municipal level to the village level. It is indicated in the study that although environmental committees exist in all the three municipal councils, environmental problems are increasing. The study found that this is due to poverty as people engage in activities like dynamite fishing, clearing mangrove forests for charcoal just to make a living. Another finding is that in terms of implementation of the policy, the municipal councils employ rather the top-down as opposed to the bottom-up approach. However, the study is ofthe view that a combination of the two approaches could be the solution to the problems of achieving sustainable environment management. The main conclusion reached in the study is that the municipal councils face some problems in the implementation of the National Environment policy. Their capacity to implement the policy is affected by various factors. These are policy resources, such as financial resources, human resources and technology; understanding, and applicability of policy instruments, implementation structure, co-ordination and communication, the role of community participation, and the attitude of the local communities, as influenced by lack of culture of compliance to the laws

Fifty Years of Cooperatives and Economic Development in Tanzania (1961-2011)

This paper has been prepared to document key contribution of co-operatives to socio economic development of Tanzania during fifty years of its independence. The paper is based on library research and the experience of the author on cooperative development and its role in economic development in Tanzania. Tanzania commemorated its fifty years of independence in 2011 and it was necessary to establish and document some of the contribution of cooperatives in economic development during that period of independence so as to create awareness to the government, cooperative stakeholders and scholars and motivate other people to conduct more studies. The historical background of cooperatives goes back to 1925 where small holder coffee farmers in Kilimanjaro started cooperatives and rapidly spread to other areas of Tanganyika. The performance of co-operatives was fairly good during the period of 1960 to 1976. Cooperative in Tanzania were abolished in 1976 and were reestablished in 1982 and its performance after its re establishment was not on the earlier successful footing. Until their abolition in 1976, co-operatives had played a great role in economic development in Tanzania. Ever since their abolition in 1976 and subsequent re establishment in 1982, co-operatives have faced a myriad of challenges including those arising from financial, structural, governance and policy framework. Fifty years of independence have witnessed poor management, corruption, embezzlement, inadequate capital, weak support institutions, inappropriate policies, poor members’ education and stiff competition from the liberalized market economy of the 1990’s. With the advent of the 21st century, co-operatives were given new life. The 2000 Special Presidential Committee on co-operatives was followed by the 2003 Cooperative Societies Act. Later on, a key strategic document- The Cooperative Reform and Modernization Programme (2005- 2015) was produced as a blue print for cooperative revival in Tanzania. To achieve their goals, co-operatives need to be commercially viable enterprises, able to compete in the liberalized market and prosper in the marketplace so as to achieve its purpose of fulfilling the members’ economic and social needs. Keywords: co-operatives, economic development, marketing, savings and credit, members’ need

Risk factors for pre-eclampsia in low and middle-income countries, a case study of Tanzania

This PhD research focuses on understanding a maternal pregnancy condition known as pre-eclampsia. This condition contributes to around 14 % of the global burden of maternal mortality and fivefold of perinatal mortality in developing countries. Genetic, environmental, nutritional and socioeconomic factors are thought to disproportionately affect the burden of pre-eclampsia in low and middle-income countries (LMIC). The first chapter gives an overview; it introduces pre-eclampsia and outlines its contribution to the burden of maternal and infant mortality and morbidity. It summarises all chapters in this thesis. The second chapter gives the background of the literature review. This chapter describes pre-eclampsia in the context of hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. It then explains some of the risk factors of pre-eclampsia, the natural history of the disease and the health system response: current modalities in screening, the evolution of the definition pre-eclampsia, diagnosis, prevention and management. The third chapter describes the scoping study, which aims at summarising explored risk factors in Africa, to identify potential gaps and the feasibility of conducting a systematic review. Its results showed that there were twenty studies done in Africa that had explored relatively few risk factors. These studies had methodological limitations of size and rigour, hence produced conflicting and inconclusive associations between pre-eclampsia outcome and most explored risk factors, including malaria infection. They also showed a gap in the literature regarding models built by risk factors that attempted to classify pre-eclampsia outcome in African populations. The fourth chapter describes the systematic review that explores the relationship between malaria infection and gestational hypertension (GH) with proteinuria (pre-eclampsia) or without. It considers two pathways that malaria possibly exert its effect on causing gestational hypertension. One pathway being through a dysfunctional placenta and the other pathway is by endothelial inflammation of blood vessels from malaria toxins. The result of the meta-analysis was a pooled odds ratio (OR) of 2.6, 95 % confidence interval (CI) 1.5 to 4.5. The odds of pre-eclampsia among pregnant women with malaria infection were 2.6 times than pregnant women without malaria infection. The fifth chapter describes the analysis of secondary data from Tanzania. This data analysis has four objectives. The sixth chapter describes the results of the four objectives, while chapter Seven presents the discussions of the four objectives. This data analysis used data from two sources: a hospital maternity register from northern Tanzania and a clinical trial in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. The data analysis had four objectives; objective one determined the incidence pre-eclampsia to be 1.9 %, 95 % CI 1.3 % to 2.2 % in Dar es Salaam city, Tanzania. Objective two describes the sociodemographic characteristics of women with pre-eclampsia compared with those without pre-eclampsia in northern Tanzania population. Preeclampsia was more frequent among women with age above 35 years, single and tertiary level education. Objective three aimed to identify biomedical risk factors for pre-eclampsia among women in northern Tanzania. Then, I used these identified risk factors to build prediction models for pre-eclampsia. I later assessed the ability of these models to classify women with and without pre-eclampsia. Maternal age, weight before pregnancy, contraceptive intrauterine device (IUD) use, a diagnosis of malaria, diagnosis of infections, history of hypertension and HIV treatment were statistically significant predictors in some of my models. My final models in predicting pre-eclampsia in all deliveries, term and preterm delivery subgroups produced an area under the curve of 69.4 %, 71.2 % and 66.9 % respectively. The points of maximum sensitivity and specificity produced sensitivity values of 65 %, 65 % and 59 % respectively, while also producing specificity values of 63 %, 65 % and 66 % respectively. The risk factors and the prediction models were developed on a hospital-based register where the incidence of pre-eclampsia was 3.5%. Since hospital estimates tend to overestimate the incidence compared to population survey, the results of my prediction models will differ in women populations with a high risk of pre-eclampsia. The fourth objective describes the pregnancy outcome of women with preeclampsia compared to women without pre-eclampsia. The results showed there were more stillbirths among women with pre-eclampsia. The odds of stillbirth were 4.8 (95 % CI 3.7 – 6.3) times among women with preeclampsia than women without pre-eclampsia in all deliveries. Upon stratifying by term and preterm deliveries the odds were 2.6 (95 % CI 1.6 – 4.3) and 2.9 (95 % CI 2.0 – 4.1) respectively. The surviving offspring have worse developmental indicators compared to their counterparts in terms of low a Apgar score at 1-minute, low birth weight, small head circumference and short birth length. The odds of a low Apgar score (0 – 3) baby was 4.3 times (95 % CI 3.4 - 5.4) among pre-eclampsia women in all deliveries compared to normal Apgar score (4 – 10) babies. The association was maintained in the subgroups of term and preterm delivery (OR = 2.3, 95 % CI 1.5 – 3.5 and 2.8, 95 % CI 2.0 - 3.9 respectively). Chapter Eight covers the conclusion and recommendations of this thesis, which are: (i) Few studies that explored risk factors in Africa, more studies are needed to resolve conflicting and inconclusive findings from these studies. (ii) Malaria infection is associated with pre-eclampsia and gestational hypertension in malaria endemic regions. Malaria control should be intensified among pregnant women and further studies should explore the causal mechanisms. (iii) The incidence of pre-eclampsia should be tracked to observe changes in its trends in the evolving urban populations of LMIC. (iv) Affordable and feasible prediction models for pre-eclampsia should be developed and assessed for performance to enable identification and provision of prevention services on women with a high risk of developing preeclampsia. (v) Women with pre-eclampsia should receive appropriate treatment to mitigate the negative impact on their pregnancy outcome

Support in development and facilitation of training programme to Tazara Mbeya Savings and Credit Cooperative Society Limited

This report is an outcome of the work done by the author after working with TAZARA Savings and Credit Cooperative Society Ltd, based in Mbeya Municipality for the period of 18 months while pursuing Master Degree Programme. This project report is submitted as a partial fulfillment of requirement for the degree of Master in Science in Community Economic Development in Southern New Hampshire University at the Open University of Tanzania. The overall objective of the project was to support in the development and facilitation of training programme to members, committee members and staff of the organization. The underlying specific objectives of the assignment are: a) To support the organization establish baseline data b) Jointly with organization to conduct training needs assessment c) Development and facilitation of tailor made training programme to members, committee members and staff The situational analysis established "Weak members empowerment" as a core problem, which culminated to poor participation, low savings, and low credit management. It was further hypothesized that the best solution to the problem is to design and implement tailor made training programme to members, committee members and staff of the organization. The survey was designed and conducted to enhance collection of both quantitative and qualitative data that enabled assessment of training needs and establishment of baseline data for the organization. The output of training needs assessment was the major inputs in the development of tailor made training programmeto members, committee members and staff of the organization. The training modules designed for members were business management skills and leadership, while that for board members were leadership skills and interpretation of financial statements and that of staff were accounting for micro finance and financial management. During the period of this project two training sessions in business management skills and entrepreneurship were organized and facilitated and a total of 66 members and 4 leaders participated. The training was evaluated by the participants as very successfully and relevant to them. The cooperation from the host organization enhanced the success of this assignment, indeed the work was very challenging and interesting and we both learnt a lot from the intervention. However in order to sustain this process I would like to make the following recommendations: a) The organization should carry out the impact of the training after the accomplishment of the training in order to establish the impact of the training and analyze the new training needs and develop a training programme. b) Training programme should move beyond one time workshops to a combination of training and sustained technical support. Successful training must include the active participation of participants through experiential learning and the long term support of the participants as they work to implement business activities. c) The student who will be attached to work with CBO in future to undertake monitoring and provide backstopping to ensure proper management of business activities established by those trained. d) The organization should explore on the strategies of establishing effective linkages with the financial institutions in order to access to funds in order to enhance its capacity to provide credits to its members especially who undergone training in business management skills. The organization should also work out strategies of linking their members who develop viable projects to the financial institutions for borrowing. (Author abstract)Mruma, A. O. (2005). Support in development and facilitation of training programme to Tazara Mbeya Savings and Credit Cooperative Society Limited. Retrieved from http://academicarchive.snhu.eduMaster of Science (M.S.)School of Community Economic Developmen

Provision of sustainable education, and subsidization of basic needs for street children of Arusha Region

This survey quantitatively characterized the topics of sustainable education, subsidization and basic needs for street children of CCF in Arusha City. The survey included the following criteria; type of task, size of application, question scoring, reliability, validity and survey duration. Children for Children's Future (CCF) is a registered organization that serves children of Arusha City and Arumeru District under the "Street Children" Project. The situation of street children has been growing in size, whereby at every key location of street children, approximately 10 to 15 children are found. Dr, H. Rwegoshora (2002). The economic crisis of Tanzania has been described as a major cause of poverty which has destroyed family structures. The aim of the street children project has been to empower, protect, and provide basic needs to street children. The organization worked in collaboration with local government, religious leaders, institutions and parents. The interaction and involvement of stakeholders has been to identify root causes of problems, and have them participate fully in the project and decision making process. On research methodology, the researcher used cross-section design, because data could easily capture accurate measurement at a given point in time. A sample was collected from selected areas of Arusha Municipal. Questionnaires were inserted face to face, and a group discussion was employed. The survey findings could be presented to the community, public, and readers who show interest in the precise phrasing of the street children inquiries. The SWOT analysis from CCF organization revealed that significant training was needed e.g. proposal writing and managerial skills in order to capitalize and accomplish the mission and objectives. Moreover, Children for Children Future organization were a donor dependant. Consequently, CCF was facing problems of poor services rendered to the street children at their centers. (Author abstract)Mruma, A. R. (2007). Provision of sustainable education, and subsidization of basic needs for street children of Arusha Region. Retrieved from http://academicarchive.snhu.eduMaster of Science (M.S.)School of Community Economic Developmen

Survey Report on the Establishment of National Cooperative Archive in Tanzania: Prospects and Challenges

Moshi University College of Cooperative and Business Studies in collaboration with Cooperative College of Manchester launched a project known as “Preserving East African Co-operative Heritage (PEACH)” in January 2011. As the first step in implementing this project a team composed of staff from MUCCoBS and Cooperative College, Manchester conducted a survey in cooperatives and other stakeholders in seven regions of Tanzania. This survey was a pilot study aiming to identify the extent, availability, location and preservation needs of co-operative archives in Tanzania and establish potentials and challenges to establish National Cooperative archive. The surveys established the existence of a long range of cooperative records with archival value and therefore validated the intention of MUCCoBS to establish National Cooperative Archive. However many archival materials identified, were mostly in a bad condition, they are fragile, dirty, strained, brittle, crumbling, sometimes bent and full of rusty metal clips and they are stored in dirty rooms. Most cooperatives visited do not know the difference between archival records with long term value and records with no value that can be destroyed. The survey established that all cooperative stakeholders are supporting the idea of establishing National Cooperative Archive and are willing to surrender the archival materials to MUCCoBS for preservation. It was observed that there is high commitment of the management of MUCCoBS to establish the cooperative archive and the staff of the College needs some capacity building to acquire the required competency to manage the cooperative archive to be established. As a way forward it was proposed that MUCCoBS should strive to establish the repository to be used to preserve cooperative archive. Key words: cooperative archive, cooperative society, repository, records, surve

Taking Africa RISING-led technologies and innovations to scale: Experience of public-private partnerships

United States Agency for International Developmen

Geochronology and structure of the eastern margin of the Tanzania Craton east of Dodoma

The precise position, nature and U-Pb zircon geochronology of the eastern margin of the Tanzania Craton has been studied in the Mpwapwa area, some 60 km east of Dodoma, central Tanzania, in a number of field transects over a ca. 45 km strike length of the craton margin. The rocks to the east of the Tanzania Craton in this area either belong to the Palaeoproterozoic Usagaran belt, or the “Western Granulite” terrane of the Neoproterozoic East African Orogen, according to different authors. The eastern part of the craton is underlain by typical Neoarchaean migmatitic grey granodioritic orthogneisses dated by ICP-MS at 2674 ± 73 Ma. There is a gradual increase in strain eastwards in these rocks, culminating in a 1 to 2 km wide, locally imbricated, ductile thrust/shear zone with mylonites indicating an oblique top-to-the-NW, transpressional sense of movement. East of the craton-edge shear zone, a series of high-grade supracrustal rocks are termed the “Mpwapwa Group”, in view of uncertain age and regional lithostratigraphic correlations. There is an apparent east-west lithological zonation of Mpwapwa Group parallel to the craton margin shear zone. In the west, immediately adjacent to the craton, the group consists of typical “shelf facies” metasediments (marbles, calc-silicates, quartzites etc.). U-Pb dating of detrital zircons from two Mpwapwa Group quartzite samples from this marginal zone contain only Archaean detritus, constraining their maximum depositional age to > ca. 2.6 Ga and suggesting that the group is Neoarchaean in age. The shelf rocks pass eastwards into garnet and kyanite-bearing semi-pelitic gneisses interlayered with bimodal mafic-felsic gneisses, where the mafic amphibolite gneisses may represent meta-basalts and the felsic rocks may have meta-rhyolite, -granite or –psammite protoliths. Massive garnet-clinopyroxene amphibolite layers in the Mpwapwa Group gneisses may have been intrusive mafic sills and possibly correlate with the Palaeoproterozoic Isimani Suite, which outcrops south of the study area and includes 2 Ga eclogites. Zircons from a quartzo-feldsapthic gneiss sample from the bimodal gneisses were dated and showed it to be a probable Neoarchaean rock which underwent metamorphism during the Palaeoproterozoic Usagaran event at ca. 1950 Ma. This event was broadly coeval with subduction, closure of an ocean basin and eclogite formation further south and led to the initial juxtaposition of the two Archaean blocks. The metamorphism probably dates the tectonic event when the Archaean Mpwapwa Group rocks were juxtaposed against the orthogneissic Tanzania Craton. The Mpwapwa Group was intruded by weakly foliated biotite granite at 1871 ± 35 Ma. Zircons in the granite have metamorphic rims dated between 550 and 650 Ma that grew during the East African orogenic event

Taking agricultural technologies to scale: Experience of the Africa RISING-NAFAKA partnership in Tanzania

United States Agency for International Developmen