Depoliticised ethnicity in Tanzania: a structural and historical Narrative

Much of the literature on ethnicity in Africa regards ethnicity as a central cleavage and associates its politicisation with civil war and deteriorating socio-economic conditions. Tanzanian society is not structured by this cleavage, making it an outlier among African states. Despite the negative impact of politicised ethnicity, little is known of the circumstances through which it germinates and comes to have negative consequences, or how it can be suppressed in Africa. The present article attempts a comprehensive analysis of the structural and historical factors that have made the move away from politicisation of ethnicity in Tanzania possible. It provides an eclectic structural and historical explanation that attributes lack of ethnic salience in Tanzanian politics to a particular ethnic structure, to certain colonial administrative and economic approaches, and to a sustained nation-building ethos. The argument results from a critical analysis of secondary material on ethnicity and the politics of Tanzania

Neonatal Survival in Rural Tanzania : Home Deliveries, Neonatal Mortality and Subsequent Help and Health Seeking Behaviour for the Newborn by Mothers in Rural Tanzania

It is unlikely that the fourth Millennium Development Goal (MDG 4: reduce child mortality) will be attained without considerable decline in neonatal mortality. About 4.0 million of the annual 10.8 million global deaths in children younger than 5 years occur in the first month of life. Worldwide, the average neonatal mortality is estimated to be 33 per 1000 live births. Nearly all neonatal deaths (99%) occur in low and middle income countries and about half occur at home. Three quarters of all neonatal deaths occur in the first week of life, suggesting the need for early care. Based on data from the Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) 2004/5, between 2000 and 2004 Tanzania reported a dramatic reduction in mortality in infants and children under 5 years of age, with overall under five mortality dropping from 147 to 112 per 1000 live births and infant mortality dropping from 99 to 68 per 1000 live births. However, the reduction in the neonatal mortality rate was much smaller and not statistically significant, from 40 to 32 per 1000 live births. The major direct causes of neonatal deaths globally are infections (36%), preterm birth (28%), asphyxia (23%) and remaining, 14% are due to indirect causes such as low birth weight, poverty and maternal complications in labour which carry a high risk of neonatal death. The general aim of this study was to evaluate the magnitude and determinants of neonatal mortality, home deliveries, and subsequent help and health seeking Summary XIII behaviour for the newborn by mothers in rural Tanzania. Quantitative data were collected in a cross-sectional household and health facility surveys carried out in five districts in southern Tanzania between July and October 2004 to generate baseline information before evaluation of an intervention on malaria (IPTi). Qualitative data were collected using in-depth interview, focus group discussion (FGD), case studies and through participant observation. This was implemented through the network of village-based informants (watoa taarifa) in 8 villages of Lindi rural and Tandahimba districts, southern Tanzania. Main findings: The present study revealed key areas for strengthening both the health system and the community. The 2004 health facility survey revealed particular problems with staff absences and drug stock shortages. Staff absences were common, with only about two-thirds of all employed staff present on the day of the survey. A group of seven essential oral treatments was found in less than half of all facilities. Only about one-fifth of all facilities had a supply of clean water. Data from the 2004 household survey revealed that 38% of all women had personally experienced a child death: this shows how common child deaths are in this area as well as in much of sub-Saharan Africa, where it is no great shock when a child dies. Neonatal and infant mortality were 43.2 and 76.4 per 1000 live births respectively. More surprisingly perhaps, we found little evidence that neonatal mortality rates were associated with maternal education, in contrast to Summary XIV the post-neonatal period, when mortality rates were 50% higher for mothers with no formal education compared with those who had had at least one year of schooling. We also found that children living over 5km from a health facility had lower vaccine coverage, fewer nets, more anaemia, poorer care-seeking and higher infant mortality than those living closer. Data from the qualitative research revealed that women are forced to prepare materials for childbirth and some set aside money for emergencies. Home deliveries are due in part to transport cost, poor quality of care in health facilities and lack of privacy. Most home births are assisted by unskilled attendants, which contribute to a lack of immediate appropriate care for both mother and baby. The umbilical cord is thought to make the baby vulnerable to witchcraft and great care is taken to shield both mother and baby from bad spirits until the cord stump falls off. Despite many good essential newborn care practices, we also found risky behaviour for the newborn in relation to resuscitation, drying and warming, breastfeeding, cord care, skin care and eye care. Many newborns are denied colostrum and are fed sweetened warm water before breastfeeding or as a supplemental feed. A positive attitude towards antenatal and postnatal care can offer important opportunities for better integration the health system and the community by encouraging women to deliver with a skilled attendant. Efforts to improve antenatal and postnatal care should therefore focus on increasing geographical and economic access while observing cultural sensitivity. Summary XV This thesis has revealed key areas for strengthening both the health system and the community. The findings emphasize the need for a systematic approach to overcome health-system constraints, for community based programmes and for scaling-up effective low-cost interventions which are already available. Behaviour change communication strategies capitalizing on common and positive themes in local beliefs about pregnancy and newborn care practices are key steps to improve maternal and newborn health. Women’s access to income must be addressed strongly, as it might strengthen their bargaining power to influence place and timing of accessing skilled delivery. Promoting female education, especially primary and higher education, as well as continued health education, accompanied by a suitable and effective health care delivery system should lead to sustainable safer motherhood practices. Zusammenfassung XVI Zusammenfassung Ohne eine deutliche Abnahme der Sterblichkeitsrate bei Neugeborenen ist das Erreichen des vierten Millenniumsentwicklungsziels (MDG 4) zur Reduktion der Kindersterblichkeit unwahrscheinlich. Rund 37% der weltweit jährlich 10,8 Millionen Todesfälle bei Kindern unter 5 Jahren ereignen sich im ersten Lebensmonat. Die durchschnittliche Sterblichkeitsrate in den ersten 28 Tagen wird auf 33 pro 1000 Lebendgeburten geschätzt. Beinahe alle diese Todesfälle (99%) ereignen sich in Entwicklungs- und Schwellenländern, und etwa die Hälfte aller Säuglinge stirbt zu Hause. Zwei Drittel all dieser Neugeborenen sterben in der ersten Woche nach der Geburt, eine Tatsache, die auf die Notwendigkeit von früher Pflege verweist. Wie eine Studie zur Demographie und Gesundheit in Tansania (Demographic and Health Survey (DHS)) aufzeigt, konnte Tansania zwischen den Jahren 2000 und 2004 einen erheblichen Rückgang der Sterblichkeit bei Säuglingen und Kleinkindern unter 5 Jahren verzeichnen: die Sterblichkeitsrate bei Kindern unter 5 Jahren sank von 147 auf 112 pro 1000 Lebendgeburten, bei Säuglingen fiel sie von 99 auf 68 pro 1000 Lebendgeburten. Die Reduktion der Sterblichkeitsrate bei Neugeborenen fiel dagegen sehr viel geringer aus (von 40 auf 32 Lebendgeburten) und ist statistisch nicht signifikant. Die weltweit häufigsten direkten Ursachen, die zum Tod von Neugeborenen führen, sind Infektionskrankheiten (36%), Frühgeburt (28%) und Erstickungstod (23%). Die restlichen 14% der Todesfälle werden durch indirekte Faktoren wie Zusammenfassung XVII zum Beispiel Untergewicht bei der Geburt, Armut und Geburtskomplikationen verursacht, wobei speziell letztere ein hohes Risiko für Säuglingstod bergen. Ziel dieser Studie ist es, das Ausmass der Sterblichkeit bei Neugeborenen zu evaluieren, und Faktoren für die Wahl des Geburtsortes sowie die medizinische Behandlung im ländlichen Raum Tansanias besser zu verstehen. Von Juli 2004 bis Oktober 2004 wurden in einer Querschnittstudie in Haushalten und Gesundheitszentren quantitative Daten in fünf verschiedenen Distrikten in Südtansania erhoben. Diese Daten lieferten Basisinformationen für eine später durchgeführte Malariaintervention (IPTi). Qualitative Daten wurden in Form von Tiefeninterviews, Fokusgruppendiskussionen, Fallstudien und durch teilnehmende Beobachtung erhoben. Für die Datenerhebung wurde ein Netzwerk lokaler Informanten in acht Dörfern (watoa taarifa) in den beiden ländlichen Distrikten Lindi und Tandahimba im südlichen Tansania eingerichtet. Die vorliegende Arbeit macht auf die Notwendigkeit von Verbesserungsmassnahmen sowohl im Gesundheitssystem als auch in der Gesellschaft aufmerksam. Die im Jahr 2004 durchgeführte Studie in den Gesundheitszentren verdeutlicht vor allem die durch Personalabsenzen und fehlende Medikamente verursachten Probleme. Personalabsenzen sind alltäglich, und nur rund zwei Drittel der angestellten Personen waren während des Besuchs in den Gesundheitszentren anwesend. Eine Gruppe von sieben essentiellen oralen Medikamenten war in weniger als der Hälfte aller Zusammenfassung XVIII Gesundheitszentren vorhanden. Nur ein Fünftel aller Gesundheitszentren verfügte über Wasser. Die Haushaltsumfrage im Jahr 2004 ergab, dass 38% aller Frauen den Tod mindestens eines ihrer Kinder erlebt hatten, was die Häufigkeit und Normalität dieses Ereignisses in der Region und in Afrika südlich der Sahara verdeutlicht. Die Sterblichkeit bei Neugeborenen und Säuglingen liegt bei 43,2 bzw. 76,4 Todesfällen pro 1000 Lebendgeburten. Während in der postnatalen Phase die Säuglingssterblichkeit bei Müttern ohne Schulbildung 50% höher ist als bei Müttern, die mindestens ein Jahr lang die Schule besuchten, kann ein solcher Zusammenhang für die neonatale Phase überraschenderweise nicht aufgezeigt werden. Die Haushaltsstudie zeigt weiter auf, dass die Impfrate und Bettnetzdichte für Kinder, die weiter als 5km vom Gesundheitszentrum entfernt leben, niedriger ist als für Kinder, die in der Nähe von Gesundheitszentren wohnen. Kinder, die weiter entfernt leben, leiden ausserdem häufiger an Anämie, werden weniger häufig behandelt, und die Säuglingsterblichkeit ist höher. Die qualitativen Daten verdeutlichen, dass von den Frauen erwartet wird, für die Geburt notwendige Utensilien selbst zu besorgen sowie Geld für den Notfall vorzubereiten. Teilweise sind auch hohe Transportkosten, das marode Gesundheitssystem und fehlende Privatsphäre Gründe für Hausgeburten. Bei den meisten Hausgeburten werden die Frauen von Laien unterstützt, die im Notfall nicht über das notwendige Wissen verfügen, um der Mutter oder dem Zusammenfassung XIX Säugling ausreichend medizinische Hilfe leisten zu können. Die Nabelschnur wird mit der Verwundbarkeit des Säuglings gegenüber übernatürlichen Kräften und Hexerei assoziiert. Grosse Sorgfalt wird daher darauf verwendet, sowohl die Mutter als auch das Kind vor bösen Geistern zu schützen, bis die Nabelschnur abfällt. Neben korrektem Verhalten wurden auch riskante Praktiken rund um die Reanimation, das Trocknen, Wärmen und Stillen des Neugeborenen sowie rund um die Behandlung der Nabelschnur, der Haut und der Augen des Säuglings beobachtet. Viele der Neugeborenen erhalten keine Vormilch und werden stattdessen zusätzlich mit gesüsstem warmem Wasser gefüttert. Eine positive Einstellung bezüglich Geburtsvor- und nachsorge kann Möglichkeiten für eine verbesserte Kooperation zwischen dem Gesundheitssystem und der Gesellschaft bieten. Anstrengungen zur Verbesserung der Geburtsvor- und nachsorge sollten sich daher auf einen guten geographischen und ökonomischen Zugang konzentrieren, und dabei kulturelle Sensitivität als zentrales Element integrieren. Die vorliegende Doktorarbeit zeigt Interventionsmöglichkeiten sowohl im Gesundheitssystem als auch in der Gesellschaft auf. Die Resultate verdeutlichen die Notwendigkeit für einen systematischen Ansatz, der die Schwächen des Gesundheitssystems angeht, für gesellschaftsbasierte Programme und für die Verbreitung (up-scaling) von bestehenden effektiven und kosteneffizienten Interventionen. Kommunikationsstrategien, die auf Verhaltensveränderungen Zusammenfassung XX abzielen und allgemein bekannte positive Themen in den lokalen Vorstellungen rund um Schwangerschaft und Pflege von Neugeborenen nützen, bilden die Basis zur Verbesserung der Mütter- und Kindgesundheit. Der Zugang der Frauen zu ökonomischen Ressourcen muss betont werden, da damit deren Möglichkeit, Ort und Zeit des Zugangs zu professioneller Pflege zu bestimmen, verbessert werden kann. Die Förderung von Frauenbildung, vor allem Grundschul- und höhere Bildung aber auch bezüglich Gesundheit, zusammen mit einem Angebot an angemessenen und effektiven Gesundheitsangeboten, sollte zu nachhaltigen Praktiken rund um Schwangerschaft und Geburt führen

Production and characterization of alkaliphilic amylases from Bacillus halodurans Alk36

Amylases are hydrolytic enzymes that cause the breakdown of starch and related polysaccharides to simple sugars. Amylases are applied in brewing, food, detergent and textile industries. Most commercial amylases are derived from fungi or bacteria. Bacterial amylases are desired for commercial use, due to their thermo-stability and faster production rates. Bacteria of the genus, Bacillus, are considered to be a good source of extracellular proteins because they have high growth rates and have a naturally high capacity for secretion of extracellular proteins. Bacillus halodurans Alk36 is an alkaliphilic, thermotolerant isolate that can grow over a wide pH and temperature range. Preliminary studies have shown that B. halodurans Alk36 can grown in EnBase® medium (at pH 8.5) containing starch as the carbon source, without the addition of a commercial amylase. The ability to grow on starch, in the absence of an external amylase, indicated that this strain produces endogenous alkaliphilic amylases, which may be exploited for a number of industrial applications. In the present study, the physiological and biochemical characterisation of B. halodurans Alk36 and its endogenous amylases were investigated

Ethnicity, voting and the promises of the independence movement in Tanzania: the case of the 2010 general elections in Mwanza

This dissertation explores the influence of ethnicity on determining voters’ choices in Tanzania. The issue of explaining ethnicity and voting in Tanzania is puzzling. The puzzle stems from the fact that Tanzania is less ethnically politicised compared to most African states, despite being ethnically diverse with over 120 ethnic groups, sharing the colonial history and an ongoing anxiety about competitive politics and liberal economics breeding ethnic salience in voting. The overriding literature on influences of ethnicity on voting in Africa revolves around the paradigms of ethnic structure and neo-patrimonial or hybrid systems. Whereas the concept of ethnic structure contends that salience of ethnicity in voting is determined by the ability of ethnic groups to form a minimum winning coalition (MWC) in elections, the neo-patrimonial and hybrid schools explain the same from Africa’s presumed traditional primordialism – as opposed to legal-rational institutions of governance (LRIs) or historically grown values preventing ethnic voting. The assumption of ethnic motivations and the reference to traditional structures has long concealed the role of shared history, political thoughts and innovative practices in Tanzania’s management of ethnicity, particularly in voters’ choices in elections. Such backdrop warranted exploration of an alternative analytical framework. This study developed an analytic narrative method that mainly relied on interviews with privileged witnesses as well as ordinary voters (65). The fundamental factor, we established, in explaining ethnicity’s low salience in voters’ choices in Tanzania has been the Promises of the Independence Movement (PsIM), namely a political imaginary about realising and enhancing promises of national unity (PNU), equitable distribution of national resources (EDNR) and peace. The PsIM in sum created a nationalist political culture against ethnic polarisation and salience in politics capable of sustaining low salience of ethnicity in voting for 50 years after independence. Based on the interviews, we reject the neo-patrimonial theory and hybrid schools and brand them as inadequate tools for understanding the significance of ethnicity on determining voters’ choices in Tanzania. The rejection is predicated on the fact that the Tanzanian case does not support the primary tenets of the theory in divulging the influences of ethnicity on voting as explained above. Ideals deduced from a nationalist political culture as embedded in the PsIM, informed legal rational rules and institutions, values as well as experiences that militate against the salience of ethnicity on determining electorates’ choices. On this basis, we can give credit to, but also critically examine, the indigenous political thoughts informed by African political thought and practices that determine voting practices

A Comparison of Beat Frequency Estimation Methods for Large Ring Laser

Autoregressive (AR2) technique has always been used to estimate frequency of the output signal from Large ring laser. However, the acquisition rate is not at near real time which is the requirement and noise level still challenge the process resulting to errors in the final estimation. A research was done to compare the Autoregressive (AR2) with the counterparts such as Pisarenko, Quinn, Hilbert and Phase looking for a better technique that will estimate the frequency at near real time to minimize errors. Secondary data from G and C – II ring laser were used during the comparison between the techniques and Autoregressive (AR2). Results shows that, the output characteristics from the counterpart does not depict the oscillations of the Earth rotation as expected contrast to that of Autoregressive (AR2) which does. Moreover, there were much deviation from the expected true value for the techniques contrast to that of AR2 which is very minimum. On the other hand, when the C – II data were used, it was observed that both techniques resemble on their output characteristics though AR2 was still better in the acquisition rate expect for Hilbert transform which does not resemble with others. Following the scope of this paper, Autoregressive (AR2) technique still emerge as a favorite frequency estimation technique contrast to the four counterparts due to its robustness, high acquisition rate as well as low noise level

A Large Cross-Sectional Community-Based Study of Newborn Care Practices in Southern Tanzania

Despite recent improvements in child survival in sub-Saharan Africa, neonatal mortality rates remain largely unchanged. This study aimed to determine the frequency of delivery and newborn-care practices in southern Tanzania, where neonatal mortality is higher than the national average. All households in five districts of Southern Tanzania were approached to participate. Of 213,220 female residents aged 13-49 years, 92% participated. Cross-sectional, retrospective data on childbirth and newborn care practices were collected from 22,243 female respondents who had delivered a live baby in the preceding year. Health facility deliveries accounted for 41% of births, with nearly all non-facility deliveries occurring at home (57% of deliveries). Skilled attendants assisted 40% of births. Over half of women reported drying the baby and over a third reported wrapping the baby within 5 minutes of delivery. The majority of mothers delivering at home reported that they had made preparations for delivery, including buying soap (84%) and preparing a cloth for drying the child (85%). Although 95% of these women reported that the cord was cut with a clean razor blade, only half reported that it was tied with a clean thread. Furthermore, out of all respondents 10% reported that their baby was dipped in cold water immediately after delivery, around two-thirds reported bathing their babies within 6 hours of delivery, and 28% reported putting something on the cord to help it dry. Skin-to-skin contact between mother and baby after delivery was rarely practiced. Although 83% of women breastfed within 24 hours of delivery, only 18% did so within an hour. Fewer than half of women exclusively breastfed in the three days after delivery. The findings suggest a need to promote and facilitate health facility deliveries, hygienic delivery practices for home births, delayed bathing and immediate and exclusive breastfeeding in Southern Tanzania to improve newborn health