Angle-resolved studies of tin laser plasma extreme ultraviolet sources

The work presented in this thesis is primarily concerned with the radiation and ions emitted by laser produced plasmas (LPPs) containing tin. If the semiconductor manufacturing industry is to meet Moore’s law (a doubling in the number of transistors per square inch on integrated circuits every two years), new lithographic techniques are required. EUV lithography (EUVL) shows the most promise, requiring a bright source of radiation in the 2% band centered at 13.5 nm, known as in-band radiation. This is due to the high reflectivity of molybdenum/silicon multilayer mirrors at these wavelengths. Tin-based LPPs have been shown to emit strongly in the in-band region. Chapter 2 presents a unique optical system with the ability to present a range of observing angles to a fixed detector, while maintaining normal incidence for the laser onto a planar solid target. This allows the system to be rotated, with respect to a fixed detector, while maintaining spatially stable plasma formation. Chapter 3 presents absolute intensity measurements of in-band radiation, emitted from pure tin laser produced plasmas, for a range of angles. Also measured is the angular distribution of intensities from 10 to 18 nm. Light, from outside the 2% band at 13.5 nm in this region, will result in flare at the resist in extreme ultraviolet lithography, thus limiting the feature resolution attainable. Two of the main problems facing next generation lithography are thermal and debris mitigation. Sn-based LPPs are highly emissive in the region of 100 to 3000 nm, where the multilayer optics can be highly reflective. This out-of-band (OOB) radiation can cause flare, heat the wafer and create overlay issues. It is necessary to quantify the levels of OOB radiation, over a range of wavelength regions, to facilitate the development of suitable optical components that will reduce the OOB radiation at the wafer plane to acceptable levels. Chapter 4 presents the angular distributions of OOB radiation for a range of wavelength regions between 200 and 1000 nm. Also, ions that are emitted from these LPPs may cause significant damage to the components in a real world projection lithography system. Fast ions, impinging on multilayer optics, can lead to the sputtering of mirror layers and debris deposited on multilayer optics and can degrade in-band reflectivity. In order to effectively mitigate this damage it is necessary to know the speed and direction of the emitted ions. The angular distribution of the total number of ions, from Sn1+ to Sn9+, emitted from a Snbased LPP, is investigated in Chapter 5. The charge state, energy and relative number of these ions have also been determined. In order to facilitate comparison between EUV, OOB and ion data in chapters 3, 4 and 5, the measurements in these chapters were performed at approximately equal plasma conditions. This comparison is explored and detailed in Chapter 6

Localisation of gamma-ray interaction points in thick monolithic CeBr3 and LaBr3:Ce scintillators

Localisation of gamma-ray interaction points in monolithic scintillator crystals can simplify the design and improve the performance of a future Compton telescope for gamma-ray astronomy. In this paper we compare the position resolution of three monolithic scintillators: a 28x28x20 mm3 (length x breadth x thickness) LaBr3:Ce crystal, a 25x25x20 mm3 CeBr3 crystal and a 25x25x10 mm3 CeBr3 crystal. Each crystal was encapsulated and coupled to an array of 4x4 silicon photomultipliers through an optical window. The measurements were conducted using 81 keV and 356 keV gamma-rays from a collimated 133Ba source. The 3D position reconstruction of interaction points was performed using artificial neural networks trained with experimental data. Although the position resolution was significantly better for the thinner crystal, the 20 mm thick CeBr3 crystal showed an acceptable resolution of about 5.4 mm FWHM for the x and y coordinates, and 7.8 mm FWHM for the z-coordinate (crystal depth) at 356 keV. These values were obtained from the full position scans of the crystal sides. The position resolution of the LaBr3:Ce crystal was found to be considerably worse, presumably due to the highly diffusive optical in- terface between the crystal and the optical window of the enclosure. The energy resolution (FWHM) measured for 662 keV gamma-rays was 4.0% for LaBr3:Ce and 5.5% for CeBr3. The same crystals equipped with a PMT (Hamamatsu R6322-100) gave an energy resolution of 3.0% and 4.7%, respectively

Beyond Environmental Regulatory Fragmentation: Signs of Integration in the Case of the Great Lakes Basin

Peer Reviewedhttp://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/72007/1/j.1468-0491.1995.tb00197.x.pd

Localisation of gamma-ray interaction points in thick monolithic cebr3 and labr3:ce scintillators

Localisation of gamma-ray interaction points in monolithic scintillator crystals can simplify the design and improve the performance of a future Compton telescope for gamma-ray astronomy. In this paper we compare the position resolution of three monolithic scintillators: a 28x28x20 mm(3) (lengthxbreadth x thickness) LaBr3:Ce crystal, a 25x25x20 mm(3) CeBr3 crystal and a 25x25x10 mm(3) CeBr3 crystal. Each crystal was encapsulated and coupled to an array of 4x4 silicon photomultipliers through an optical window. The measurements were conducted using 81 keV and 356 keV gamma-rays from a collimated Ba-133 source. The 3D position reconstruction of interaction points was performed using artificial neural networks trained with experimental data. Although the position resolution was significantly better for the thinner crystal, the 20 mm thick CeBr3 crystal showed an acceptable resolution of about 5.4 mm FWHM for the x and y coordinates, and 7.8 mm FWHM for the z-coordinate (crystal depth) at 356 keV. These values were obtained from the full position scans of the crystal sides. The position resolution of the LaBr3: Ce crystal was found to be considerably worse, presumably due to the highly diffusive optical interface between the crystal and the optical window of the enclosure. The energy resolution (FWHM) measured for 662 keV gamma-rays was 4.0% for LaBr3: Ce and 5.5% for CeBr3. The same crystals equipped with a PMT (Hamamatsu R6322-100) gave an energy resolution of 3.0% and 4.7%, respectively

International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC): General guidance for the management of the dead related to COVID-19

Based on its forensic capacity and experience gained worldwide from the management of the dead in emergencies, including epidemics, the International Committee of the Red Cross has been asked by the authorities and other relevant stakeholders in some of its operational contexts to advise on the management of the dead from COVID-19 infection, for which it has prepared the following guidance. This includes advice on the handling of COVID-19 fatalities and a set of considerations for managers faced with the need to plan for adequately responding to a possible surge in fatalities caused by COVID-19

Surface properties of polypropylene following a novel industrial surface-treatment process

Polypropylene (PP) is used in many automotive applications where good paint adhesion is of primary importance. PP is widely known for its low surface energy which impacts negatively on its adhesion strength. PP surfaces were modified using a new industrial surface-treatment process known as the Accelerated Thermo-molecular adhesion Process (ATmaP). ATmaP grafts functional groups to the polymer surface derived from an atomised and vapourised nitrogen-containing coupling agent. The surface properties and adhesion performance of PP samples treated using the ATmaP process and two different flame processes were compared using XPS, time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) and mechanical testing (pull-up tests). The latter showed that ATmaP improved adhesion strength significantly in comparison with conventional flame treatments. XPS showed an increase in oxygen and nitrogen concentration on the surface of ATmaP-treated samples compared with untreated and flame-treated samples. Principal components analysis (PCA) of the ToF-SIMS data revealed the major phenomena occurring during the surface treatment of PP samples. Early stage events, including the chain scission of the PP backbone chain and the subsequent reaction of these chains with the surrounding air, are captured by the first principal component (PC1). The increase in the concentration of NO surface functional groups resulting from ATmaP treatment is captured by the second principal component (PC2)