The Need for Theory to Guide Concussion Research

While the focus on concussion research has expanded greatly over the past decade, progress in identifying the mechanisms and consequences of head injury, the recovery path and the development of potential interventions to facilitate recovery have been largely absent. Instead, the field has largely progressed through an accumulation of data without the guidance of any systematic theory to guide the formulation of research questions or generate testable hypotheses. As part of this special issue on sports concussion, we advance a theory to describe the evolution of a neural network during the development of a cognitive process as well as the breakdown in that network following injury to the brain. The theory emphasizes the importance of changes in spatial and temporal distributions of the brain\u27s neural networks during normal learning throughout the lifespan and the disruptions of these networks following concussion or mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI). Specific predictions are made regarding both the development of the network as well as the breakdown of that network following injury

The Need for Theory to Guide Concussion Research

While the focus on concussion research has expanded greatly over the past decade, progress in identifying the mechanisms and consequences of head injury, the recovery path and the development of potential interventions to facilitate recovery have been largely absent. Instead, the field has largely progressed through an accumulation of data without the guidance of any systematic theory to guide the formulation of research questions or generate testable hypotheses. As part of this special issue on sports concussion, we advance a theory to describe the evolution of a neural network during the development of a cognitive process as well as the breakdown in that network following injury to the brain. The theory emphasizes the importance of changes in spatial and temporal distributions of the brain\u27s neural networks during normal learning throughout the lifespan and the disruptions of these networks following concussion or mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI). Specific predictions are made regarding both the development of the network as well as the breakdown of that network following injury

Infant Language Assessment Predicts Later Math Disabilities

Prevention of cognitive disabilities currently remains out of reach. Yet, interventions are crucial to maximizing developmental outcomes later in life. To be effective, interventions must occur at the earliest age possible to mitigate potential developmental problems. This study is an attempt to identify newborn infants at risk for developing math disabilities later in life. Several studies used assessment tests at relatively late ages in order to predict future cognitive abilities (Aarnoudse-Moens et al., 2013; Kiechl-Kohlendorfer et al., 2013). More recent research used MRI scans of neonate brains to investigate the relationships between academic abilities and preterm births (Ullman et al., 2015). While these studies laid groundwork for prediction models, they primarily focused on physiological and social factors associated with preterm births. The present research examined possible precursors of math disabilities utilizing event-related potential (ERP) brain wave responses recorded from infants within 36 hours after birth. We hypothesized that infant brain responses to speech and nonspeech stimuli could predict individuals predisposed to developing math difficulties later in life

The use of brain electrophysiology techniques to study language: A basic guide for the beginning consumer of electrophysiology information

There has been a long-standing interest by researchers and theorists in brain-behavior relations. This interest has led to the development and adaptation of instruments and methodologies that measure the brain's responses for use in studying developmental issues. Techniques such as electroencephalography (EEG), event-related potentials (ERP), and brainstem-evoked response (BSER) all share a common approach to cortical electrophysiology -scalp electrodes are used to detect electrical activity generated by the brain. These techniques can provide insights into brain-behavior developmental issues that complement and supplement information obtained through more traditional behavioral measures. This article reviews the history of cortical electrophysiological approaches to investigate brain-behavior relations. An overview of the procedure is provided along with rationales for various components of it. We briefly also comment on how these approaches compare to other techniques, such as Positron Emission Tomography (PET), Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), and functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI). A final section will describe the current use of ERP techniques in longitudinal research to investigate the relation between brain functioning in infancy and subsequent cognitive and language development in school-aged children, with a focus on reading and reading disability. What Are Event-Related Potentials? In order to understand ERPs (event-related potentials) or Eps (evoked potentials) some general background on the electroencephalography or EEG is useful. In the general EEG (electroencephalogram) technique, electrodes THE USE OF BRAIN ELECTROPHYSIOLOGY TECHNIQUES TO STUDY LANGUAGE: A BASIC GUIDE FOR THE BEGINNING CONSUMER OF ELECTROPHYSIOLOGY INFORMATION Dennis L. Molfese, Victoria J. Molfese, and Spencer Kelly Abstract. This article provides a basic background for the professional who is interested in utilizing event-related potential (ERP) approaches to study language processes but has little background in or knowledge about the technique. First, a brief history of the emergence of this technology is presented, followed by definitions, a theoretical overview, and a practical guide to conducting ERP studies. The basis for choice of electrode positions, equipment characteristics (e.g., filter settings), and analyses are also discussed. Finally, examples of language studies that utilize this information in a research study are provided

Repeat Baseline Assessment in College-Age Athletes

Repeat baseline testing scores from one collegiate Division I NCAA school were analyzed to determine the necessity of this practice. ImPACT tests were taken between 13 and 40 months apart (median 24 months; final N = 67). No significant difference in any test composite score was obtained; the number of tests exceeding chance levels of change was insignificant. The results do not support the recommendation for repeating baseline testing in college athletes; replication is recommended

Executive function skills of 6–8 year olds: Brain and behavioral evidence and implications for school achievement

Academic and social success in school has been linked to children’s self-regulation. This study investigated the assessment of the executive function (EF) component of self-regulation using a low-cost, easily administered measure to determine whether scores obtained from the behavioral task would agree with those obtained using a laboratory-based neuropsychological measure of EF skills. The sample included 74 children (37 females; M = 86.2 months) who participated in two assessments of working memory and inhibitory control: Knock–Tap (NEPSY: Korkman, Kirk, & Kemp, 1998), and participated in event-related potential (ERP) testing that included the directional stroop test (DST: Davidson, Cruess, Diamond, O’Craven, and Savoy (1999)). Three main findings emerged. First, children grouped as high vs. low performing on the NEPSY Knock–Tap Task were found to perform differently on the more difficult conditions of the DST (the Incongruent and Mixed Conditions), suggesting that the Knock–Tap Task as a low-cost and easy to administer assessment of EF skills may be one way for teachers to identify students with poor inhibitory control skills. Second, children’s performance on the DST was strongly related to their ERP responses, adding to evidence that differences in behavioral performance on the DST as a measure of EF skills reflect corresponding differences in brain processing. Finally, differences in brain processing on the DST task also were found when the children were grouped based on Knock–Tap performance. Simple screening procedures can enable teachers to identify children whose distractibility, inattentiveness, or poor attention spans may interfere with classroom learning

Smoking during Pregnancy Affects Speech-Processing Ability in Newborn Infants

BACKGROUND: Tobacco smoking during pregnancy is known to adversely affect development of the central nervous system in babies of smoking mothers by restricting utero–placental blood flow and the amount of oxygen available to the fetus. Behavioral data associate maternal smoking with lower verbal scores and poorer performance on specific language/auditory tests. OBJECTIVES: In the current study we examined the effects of maternal smoking during pregnancy on newborns’ speech processing ability as measured by event-related potentials (ERPs). METHOD: High-density ERPs were recorded within 48 hr of birth in healthy newborn infants of smoking (n = 8) and nonsmoking (n = 8) mothers. Participating infants were matched on sex, gestational age, birth weight, Apgar scores, mother’s education, and family income. Smoking during pregnancy was determined by parental self-report and medical records. ERPs were recorded in response to six consonant–vowel syllables presented in random order with equal probability. RESULTS: Brainwaves of babies of nonsmoking mothers were characterized by typical hemisphere asymmetries, with larger amplitudes over the left hemisphere, especially over temporal regions. Further, infants of nonsmokers discriminated among a greater number of syllables whereas the newborns of smokers began the discrimination process at least 150 msec later and differentiated among fewer stimuli. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings indicate that prenatal exposure to tobacco smoke in otherwise healthy babies is linked with significant changes in brain physiology associated with basic perceptual skills that could place the infant at risk for later developmental problems

Smoking during Pregnancy Affects Speech-Processing Ability in Newborn Infants

BACKGROUND: Tobacco smoking during pregnancy is known to adversely affect development of the central nervous system in babies of smoking mothers by restricting utero–placental blood flow and the amount of oxygen available to the fetus. Behavioral data associate maternal smoking with lower verbal scores and poorer performance on specific language/auditory tests. OBJECTIVES: In the current study we examined the effects of maternal smoking during pregnancy on newborns’ speech processing ability as measured by event-related potentials (ERPs). METHOD: High-density ERPs were recorded within 48 hr of birth in healthy newborn infants of smoking (n = 8) and nonsmoking (n = 8) mothers. Participating infants were matched on sex, gestational age, birth weight, Apgar scores, mother’s education, and family income. Smoking during pregnancy was determined by parental self-report and medical records. ERPs were recorded in response to six consonant–vowel syllables presented in random order with equal probability. RESULTS: Brainwaves of babies of nonsmoking mothers were characterized by typical hemisphere asymmetries, with larger amplitudes over the left hemisphere, especially over temporal regions. Further, infants of nonsmokers discriminated among a greater number of syllables whereas the newborns of smokers began the discrimination process at least 150 msec later and differentiated among fewer stimuli. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings indicate that prenatal exposure to tobacco smoke in otherwise healthy babies is linked with significant changes in brain physiology associated with basic perceptual skills that could place the infant at risk for later developmental problems

Dynamic effects of habituation and novelty detection on newborn event related potentials

Newborns habituate to repeated auditory stimuli, and discriminate syllables, generating opportunities for early language learning. This study investigated trial-by-trial changes in newborn electrophysiological responses to auditory speech syllables as an index of habituation and novelty detection. Auditory event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded from 16 term newborn infants, aged 1–3 days, in response to monosyllabic speech syllables presented during habituation and novelty detection tasks. Multilevel models demonstrated that newborns habituated to repeated auditory syllables, as ERP amplitude attenuated for a late-latency component over successive trials. Subsequently, during the novelty detection task, earlyand late-latency component amplitudes decreased over successive trials for novel syllables only, indicating encoding of the novel speech syllable. We conclude that newborns dynamically encoded novel syllables over relatively short time periods, as indicated by a systematic change in response patterns with increased exposure. These implications for understanding early precursors of learning and memory in newborns