Performance of Micro and Small Enterprisers in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia

Micro and Small Enterprises (MSE) have become the focus of attention for the economic development, economic growth and job creations in the world. Majority of the firms worldwide are dominated by businesses of micro and small enterprises. In developing countries, the informal sector that mainly establishes MSE remains the major source of employment and income for the urban population. A study was conducted to examine the performance of MSE in three zones of Tigray State, namely, Southern zone, Mekelle zone and Eastern zone. The data was collected using structured questionnaire on 246 MSE business owners. The data are analyzed using multiple linear regressions (dummy), Cross tabulations and chi-square test for test of independence. The result revealed that Gender, initial capital, enterprise and job type are found to be important factors of performance of MSE. There is a gender difference on sector type, education level and work sheds of micro and small enterprises business owner. The result also showed that initial capital has positively affected the performance of business owners and men headed business owners have better performance than female headed business owners. Keywords: Micro- and Small Enterprises, Performance, Gender, Tigray, Ethiopia

The value of the Okavango delta : a natural resource accounting approach

Economic valuation of the Okavango Delta can support decision making in a complex socio-economic environment in which economic development depends on a deep understanding of the value of biodiversity. The use of a natural resource accounting framework in determining the value of goods and services is crucial. The total economic value of the Okavango Delta was estimated by using primary (household valuation) and secondary data. A natural resource accounting framework was used. The components of the total economic value were the composition of wild herbivores and vegetation, and the functional values, which comprised direct use values of wild herbivores, river reed, thatching grass, wild fruits, fuelwood and palm leaves, indirect consumptive values of honey production, carbon sequestration, livestock grazing, milk production, non-consumptive use of tourism, and existence and bequest values. The values of the composition and function are expressed in per/ha values. The value of the composition of wild herbivores was estimated at P1 444 992 400 (US$294 850 699.2) or US$ 27.4/ha, while the functional value was estimated at P185 913 117.4 (US$37 527 840.96 or US$ 619.77/ha. Of the estimated direct use values of vegetation, river reed had the highest value of US$29.0/ha, while the highest value among indirect use values was that of milk production (US$ 8.5/ha). These values of selected resources reflect the contribution of the value of biodiversity of the Okavango Delta to the overall economy of the country and represent initial estimates of costs to society if these resources are lost. The estimated values can be used to raise awareness among decision makers of the economic benefits of conserving the Okavango Delta. Overall, the findings showed that the various components of the total economic value of the Okavango Delta were comparable to other wetlands in the region.Thesis (PhD (Agricultural Economics))--University of Pretoria, 2006.Agricultural Economics, Extension and Rural Developmentunrestricte

Essays on health and health care utilization in Botswana

The role of health in both economic growth and development has been established in the literature. Consequently, public health policies aim to ensure an equitable provision of quality curative health services and promotion of preventive care. However, some national survey-based health indicators in Botswana show that both child and adult health deteriorated over time, which warrants investigation that is now timely given that both the current health policy and the integrated health service plan are nearing their end. Therefore, this three-essay thesis attempts to provide insights into deteriorating health. Following an increase in the proportion of low birth weight (i.e., less than 2.5kg) children, during a period in which the country was among the worst performers in the WHO African region and the upper-middle-income category, the first essay assesses the role of prenatal care utilization on infant`s health. A joint treatment effect model for care utilization and infant outcome is estimated, accounting for the endogeneity of care utilization. As not all infants have birth weight reported, the essay also estimates the sample selection model to control for potential sample selection bias. Results show that adequate prenatal care utilization is positively associated with infant health and that failing to account for endogeneity reduces its effect. On average, birth weight improves by 0.67, 0.73 and 0.64 kg in full, urban and rural samples, respectively. These findings imply the need to audit care quality since utilization rates are high, but outcomes have been deteriorating. The second essay investigates the effect of household size and child`s birth order on child nutrition as measured by the three anthropometric indicators: height for age, weight for age and weight for height. The essay is motivated by one of the theoretical predictions of the resource dilution hypothesis relating to the impact of family size on child capital. The hypothesis postulates that large family sizes and high child`s birth order are more likely to have a negative effect on child capital. However, there are arguments that the assumption of a fixed and narrow flow of resources from parents underpinning the theory may not always hold. We estimate the random effects model to explore the within and between household effect. We find that household size is negatively associated with child nutrition and high birth order children (i.e. later born) are more likely to fare worse than their lower birth order counterparts. A variation decomposition analysis shows a higher variation in child nutrition across than within households. Of the total variation, a large share is accounted for by the unexplained component. For all the three indicators the between household explained shares are in the range 5-8%, while for within household explained shares are less than 1%. The third essay investigates whether sexual behaviour (indicators of activity and use of a condom) is responsive to both objective risk (HIV prevalence rate) and perceived risk (concern on the likelihood of being infected by HIV due to ART). Using three of the four waves of the Botswana AIDS Impact Survey (BAIS) collected by Statistics Botswana, we account for the endogeneity of both risk indicators through the method of instrumental variables. HIV prevalence rate is instrumented by the distance from respondent`s area of residence to the district with the highest HIV rate, while the perceived risk is instrumented with duration (in months) between antiretroviral therapy (ART) rollout and the survey date. Overall, results suggest there is more responsiveness to subjective rather than objective risk indicators. Compared to those who indicate to have not changed their level of concern about being infected by HIV due to ART, the less (more) concerned are less likely to abstain and use a condom (more likely to use condoms). The HIV prevalence rate has no effect on both the number of sexual partners and use of condoms. From a policy perspective, the non-behavioural response to HIV prevalence could be a cause for concern if there are unobserved fatal behavioural patterns. Thus, because programmes such as ART prolongs the lives of the infected and affects perception about the likelihood of infection risk, there could be some negative externalities as revealed by the results

Direct use values of selected vegetation resources in the Okavango delta wetland

The economic benefits generated by wetlands and the costs associated with their degradation or loss are frequently overlooked. This often leads to decisions that stimulate wetland conversion and degradation.  An important step towards correcting this situation and countering this neglect is to establish the true values of a wetland’s ecosystem goods and services.  This study attempts to estimate the direct use values of native plants, such as palm leaves for basketry, grass for thatching, fuelwood, edible fruits and plant parts used by three villages adjacent to the Okavango Delta during the 2003 calendar year.  Other sources of ecosystem goods and services, such as fishing, floodplain farming and tourism, were not considered in this study.  The average annual value per household of these harvested resources is generally higher than that of similar resources found in other southern African wetlands, owing to higher consumption rates. The overall total direct use value of plant resources, including household income contributions “in kind”, was estimated at US$1 434 per household for 2003 (or US$43.41/ha). This value is almost equal to the average household financial income of US$1 416/year. The net present value of the overall benefit from the direct use of the vegetative resources is estimated at US$101.9 million. This clearly indicates the value of the use of natural resources and their contribution to livelihoods and quality of life.  This value is so significant that economic development planners ought to incorporate it into development planning. They should not conceive infrastructure development that would jeopardise the communities’ access to these natural resources without any well-developed mitigation strategy

Assessment of Ecotourism Potential and Constraints of Community-based Sclerocarya Birrea Kernel Production in Tswapong North, Botswana

Natural woodlands provide a myriad of products and services that support community rural livelihoods through improving household income, food security, safety net, health and nutrition, leisure, ecotourism and outdoor recreation. This is more often realized among women in remote or rural areas, who for most of the time, live in poverty. This study is aligned with the United Nations sustainable development goals (SDGs) 1 (No poverty) and 12 (responsible consumption and production). Thus, the purpose of this study was to explore the potential and constraints of using Sclerocarya birrea kernels (morula) as a source of ecotourism to support livelihoods for members of a community-based Trust (CBO) in rural Botswana. The study was carried out in two villages of Seolwane and Matlhako in the central district of Botswana. Data for the study was collected from 102 members of the Trust using a semi-structured questionnaire and an interview guide for key informants. Additional information was gathered through participant observation during field work. The harvesters and producers comprised mostly of elderly women with an average age of 64 years. The net margin for kernel production for an average producer was profitable, and an ecotourism potential for morula project was rated high. Challenges facing production of morula kernels include but not limited to lack of market, lower prices, primitive production technology associated with health injuries and poor marketing. Erratic rainfall and recurring dry spells were perceived to be affecting fruiting and production of morula. The study recommends the development of an improved or modern technology in the production of kernels, listing morula tree under protected tree species in Botswana as well as encouraging and supporting its planting around the country

Epidemiology of hip fracture in Botswana

Summary A retrospective population-based survey in the Republic of Botswana determined the incidence of fractures at the hip over 3 years. The estimated number of such fractures nationwide for 2020 was 103 and is predicted to increase. Objective This article describes the epidemiology of hip fractures in the Republic of Botswana. Methods A retrospective patient chart review was conducted to identify from hospital registers the number of patients diagnosed with hip fracture in 2009, 2010, and 2011. Age- and sex-specific incidence of hip fracture was determined from which lifetime probabilities and future projections for hip fracture were calculated. Results The incidence of hip fracture was low and comparable to rates reported from Tunisia. The remaining lifetime risk of hip fracture at the age of 50 years in men and women was 1.4 and 1.1%, respectively. The incidence of hip fracture suggested that the estimated number of hip fractures nationwide in persons over the age of 50 years for 2020 was 103 and is predicted to increase by more than threefold to 372 in 2050. Conclusion The hip fracture rates can be used for healthcare planning. Additionally, these data can be used to create a FRAX model to help guide decisions about treatment

A synthesis of past, current and future research for protection and management of papyrus (Cyperus papyrus L.) wetlands in Africa

Papyrus wetlands (dominated by the giant sedge Cyperus papyrus L.) occur throughout eastern, central and southern Africa and are important for biodiversity, for water quality and quantity regulation and for the livelihoods of millions of people. To draw attention to the importance of papyrus wetlands, a special session entitled ‘‘The ecology of livelihoods in papyrus wetlands’’ was organized at the 9th INTECOL Wetlands Conference in Orlando, Florida in June 2012. Papers from the session, combined with additional contributions, were collected in a special issue of Wetlands Ecology and Management. The current paper reviews ecological and hydrological characteristics of papyrus wetlands, summarizes their ecosystem services and sustainable use, provides an overview of papyrus research to date, and looks at policy development for papyrus wetlands. Based on this review, the paper provides a synthesis of research and policy priorities for papyrus wetlands and introduces the contributions in the special issue. Main conclusions are that (1) there is a need for better estimates of the area covered by papyrus wetlands. Limited evidence suggests that the loss of papyrus wetlands is rapid in some areas; (2) there is a need for a better understanding and modelling of the regulating services of papyrus wetlands to support trade-off analysis and improve economic valuation; (3) research on papyrus wetlands should include assessment of all ecosystem services (provisioning, regulating, habitat, cultural) so that trade-offs can be determined as the basis for sustainable management strategies (‘wise use’); (4) more research on the governance, institutional and socio-economic aspects of papyrus wetlands is needed to assist African governments in dealing with the challenges of conserving wetlands in the face of growing food security needs and climate change. The papers in the special issue address a number of these issues

Community-based natural resource use and management of Bigodi Wetland Sanctuary, Uganda, for livelihood benefits

publisher versionConservation and sustainable management of wetlands requires participation of local stakeholders, including communities. The Bigodi Wetland is unusual because it is situated in a common property landscape but the local community has been running a successful community-based natural resource management programme (CBNRM) for the wetland for over a decade. Whilst external visitors to the wetland provide ecotourism revenues we sought to quantify community benefits through the use of wetland goods such as firewood, plant fibres, and the like, and costs associated with wild animals damaging farming activities. We interviewed 68 households living close to the wetland and valued their cash and non-cash incomes from farming and collection of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) and water. The majority of households collected a wide variety of plant and fish resources and water from the wetland for household use and livestock. Overall, 53% of total household cash and non-cash income was from collected products, mostly the wetland, 28% from arable agriculture, 12% from livestock and 7% from employment and cash transfers. Female-headed households had lower incomes than male-headed ones, and with a greater reliance on NTFPs. Annual losses due to wildlife damage were estimated at 4.2% of total gross income. Most respondents felt that the wetland was important for their livelihoods, with more than 80% identifying health, education, craft materials and firewood as key benefits. Ninety-five percent felt that the wetland was in a good condition and that most residents observed the agreed CBNRM rules regarding use of the wetland. This study confirms the success of the locally run CBNRM processes underlying the significant role that the wetland plays in local livelihoods

Essays on health and health care utilization in Botswana

The role of health in both economic growth and development has been established in the literature. Consequently, public health policies aim to ensure an equitable provision of quality curative health services and promotion of preventive care. However, some national survey-based health indicators in Botswana show that both child and adult health deteriorated over time, which warrants investigation that is now timely given that both the current health policy and the integrated health service plan are nearing their end. Therefore, this three-essay thesis attempts to provide insights into deteriorating health. Following an increase in the proportion of low birth weight (i.e., less than 2.5kg) children, during a period in which the country was among the worst performers in the WHO African region and the upper-middle-income category, the first essay assesses the role of prenatal care utilization on infant`s health. A joint treatment effect model for care utilization and infant outcome is estimated, accounting for the endogeneity of care utilization. As not all infants have birth weight reported, the essay also estimates the sample selection model to control for potential sample selection bias. Results show that adequate prenatal care utilization is positively associated with infant health and that failing to account for endogeneity reduces its effect. On average, birth weight improves by 0.67, 0.73 and 0.64 kg in full, urban and rural samples, respectively. These findings imply the need to audit care quality since utilization rates are high, but outcomes have been deteriorating. The second essay investigates the effect of household size and child`s birth order on child nutrition as measured by the three anthropometric indicators: height for age, weight for age and weight for height. The essay is motivated by one of the theoretical predictions of the resource dilution hypothesis relating to the impact of family size on child capital. The hypothesis postulates that large family sizes and high child`s birth order are more likely to have a negative effect on child capital. However, there are arguments that the assumption of a fixed and narrow flow of resources from parents underpinning the theory may not always hold. We estimate the random effects model to explore the within and between household effect. We find that household size is negatively associated with child nutrition and high birth order children (i.e. later born) are more likely to fare worse than their lower birth order counterparts. A variation decomposition analysis shows a higher variation in child nutrition across than within households. Of the total variation, a large share is accounted for by the unexplained component. For all the three indicators the between household explained shares are in the range 5-8%, while for within household explained shares are less than 1%. The third essay investigates whether sexual behaviour (indicators of activity and use of a condom) is responsive to both objective risk (HIV prevalence rate) and perceived risk (concern on the likelihood of being infected by HIV due to ART). Using three of the four waves of the Botswana AIDS Impact Survey (BAIS) collected by Statistics Botswana, we account for the endogeneity of both risk indicators through the method of instrumental variables. HIV prevalence rate is instrumented by the distance from respondent`s area of residence to the district with the highest HIV rate, while the perceived risk is instrumented with duration (in months) between antiretroviral therapy (ART) rollout and the survey date. Overall, results suggest there is more responsiveness to subjective rather than objective risk indicators. Compared to those who indicate to have not changed their level of concern about being infected by HIV due to ART, the less (more) concerned are less likely to abstain and use a condom (more likely to use condoms). The HIV prevalence rate has no effect on both the number of sexual partners and use of condoms. From a policy perspective, the non-behavioural response to HIV prevalence could be a cause for concern if there are unobserved fatal behavioural patterns. Thus, because programmes such as ART prolongs the lives of the infected and affects perception about the likelihood of infection risk, there could be some negative externalities as revealed by the results