Psychometric Assessment of the Need Satisfaction and Frustration Scale with Professional Romanian Athletes

Background: Although athletes’ experiences of autonomy, competence, and relatedness play in key role in their motivation, performance-related outcomes, and wellness, there is no evidence to date on measures of autonomy, competence, and relatedness in the Romanian sport context. Building upon self-determination theory, the objective of this research was to adapt the Need Satisfaction and Frustration Scale and analyze its psychometric properties in the Romanian sport context. Methods: The participants were 642 professional athletes (354 males and 288 females; Mage = 22.81, SD = 5.78) who competed at the international and/or national level. Results: The results from confirmatory factor analyses psychometrically supported a six-factor correlated model, which was invariant across gender, age, and sport. Convergent validity was met by average variance extracted values between 0.60 and 0.74. Discriminant validity was underpinned by values from −0.72 to 0.72 for a heterotrait–monotrait ratio of correlations among the six factors. Reliability was endorsed by Cronbach’s alpha scores between 0.75 and 0.89, and between 0.76 and 0.89 for Raykov’s composite reliability coefficient. Criterion validity was supported by positive relationships of autonomy, competence, and relatedness satisfaction to autonomous motivation, and positive associations of autonomy, competence, and relatedness frustration with controlled motivation and amotivation. Conclusions: The Need Satisfaction and Frustration Scale is shown to be a valid and reliable measure of need satisfaction and frustration in professional Romanian athletes

The Dynamics of Eating Behavior Disorders and the Level of General Psychological Adaptation in Bodybuilding and Fitness Athletes

Knowing the psychological traits and clinically relevant symptoms for the development and maintenance of Eating Behavior Disorders (EDD) in bodybuilding and fitness athletes is a necessity for early intervention and the elimination of stressors that contribute to improving sports performance and quality of life.The aim of the study: To know the dynamics of EDD and the level of general psychological adaptation in athletes who practice bodybuilding and fitness according to sports gender and age.By applying the Inventory of Eating Disorders, EDI-III on 30 participants, bodybuilding and fitness practitioners, aged between 19 and 53, of which 21 are male and 9 are female, psychological traits were investigated relevant (low self-esteem, perfectionism, asceticism, fear of maturity, interpersonal, emotional problems, exaggerated control, and others) in order to know the level of distress and the presence of clinically relevant symptoms for the development and maintenance of EDD (the desire to being thin, bulimia, body dissatisfaction)We concluded that most of the athletes fall within the limits of the threshold values ​​established for the evaluated scales, 30% of the athletes (3 female athletes and 6 male athletes), obtained scores rated above the threshold on at least one of the clinical scales, which means that the risk of EDD is present in some athletes. The average of the investigated psychological scales calculated for the rated scores to establish the level of general psychological adaptation does not exceed the specified threshold for each investigated dimension separately, except for the asceticism, interpersonal problems, and exaggerated control scales. Female athletes have greater psychological balance than male athletes and lower risk of ED than male athletes, important aspects of personality and mental health in psychological training as a screening tool in the process of optimizing the effectiveness of bodybuilding and fitness training

Barriers and Facilitators for the Romanian Older Adults in Enjoying Physical Activity Health-Related Benefits

Older adults are considered a vulnerable category within the population, which is exposed to an accelerated risk of functional degeneration. The purpose of this study was to explore different facilitating factors and possible existing barriers to being physically active in older age in urban areas of Romania. A cross-sectional survey was conducted among 172 participants who were asked to assess their health, on a scale from 1 to 3, and to fill out two questionnaires: 1. Physical Activity Scale for the Elderly; 2. Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale. Participants were also asked to specify to what extent they performed different leisure activities during the last week. SPSS was used for data analysis. The chi-squared test, t-test, ANOVA, and MANOVA emphasised the differences between participants, at p < 0.05. Regarding health condition, 27.3% of participants responded that their health was good, 53.5%—satisfactory, and 19.2%—not so good. The results showed significant differences between older adults participating in Elderly Clubs and non-participants, only in terms of PASE leisure. There were significant multivariate effects of the variables Gender and Stable life partner regarding PASE leisure. Weak negative correlations were identified between leisure physical activities and emotional state. Among the proposed leisure activities, watching TV and listening to music represented the most frequent preferences of the participants. The older adults participating in this study preferred to become involved with different physical activities, in conjunction with their habits, health, age, sex, stable life partner, and Elderly Club participation

Barriers and Facilitators for the Romanian Older Adults in Enjoying Physical Activity Health-Related Benefits

Older adults are considered a vulnerable category within the population, which is exposed to an accelerated risk of functional degeneration. The purpose of this study was to explore different facilitating factors and possible existing barriers to being physically active in older age in urban areas of Romania. A cross-sectional survey was conducted among 172 participants who were asked to assess their health, on a scale from 1 to 3, and to fill out two questionnaires: 1. Physical Activity Scale for the Elderly; 2. Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale. Participants were also asked to specify to what extent they performed different leisure activities during the last week. SPSS was used for data analysis. The chi-squared test, t-test, ANOVA, and MANOVA emphasised the differences between participants, at p < 0.05. Regarding health condition, 27.3% of participants responded that their health was good, 53.5%—satisfactory, and 19.2%—not so good. The results showed significant differences between older adults participating in Elderly Clubs and non-participants, only in terms of PASE leisure. There were significant multivariate effects of the variables Gender and Stable life partner regarding PASE leisure. Weak negative correlations were identified between leisure physical activities and emotional state. Among the proposed leisure activities, watching TV and listening to music represented the most frequent preferences of the participants. The older adults participating in this study preferred to become involved with different physical activities, in conjunction with their habits, health, age, sex, stable life partner, and Elderly Club participation

Stress and coping during the COVID-19 pandemic among martial arts athletes – a cross-cultural study

Background and Study Aims: Success in sports among athletes on a similar level of skill can depend on individual differences in experienced stress and coping strategies. The COVID-19 pandemic has affected many areas of life, including sports. The aim of the current study was to verify two hypotheses: (H1) emotional tension, external stress, and intrapsychic stress among martial arts athletes will be significantly higher during the height of the pandemic than in the pre-pandemic period; (H2) martial arts athletes will less frequently use problem-focused strategies of coping with stress, such as active coping and planning, during the height of the pandemic. Materials and Methods: The study used the Perception of Stress Questionnaire measuring the following dimensions of stress: emotional tension, external stress, and intrapsychic stress. Coping strategies were measured with the Brief COPE questionnaire distinguishing 14 coping strategies. Seven hundred and eighty-one athletes (including 116 martial arts athletes) from Poland, Romania, and Slovakia took part in the study in the pre-pandemic period. During the height of the pandemic, athletes from Hungary, Indonesia, Iran, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, and Spain took part in the study (n = 1032, including 396 martial arts athletes). Results: Higher levels of emotional tension, external stress, and intrapsychic stress were observed among Polish and Romanian martial arts athletes in the pre-pandemic period. Stress levels were higher before the pandemic than during its peak, when the lowest levels of emotional tension and external stress were reported by martial arts athletes in Romania, and the highest – in Lithuania and Spain. On the other hand, the lowest levels of intrapsychic stress were reported by martial arts athletes in Poland, and the highest – in Lithuania. Key gender-dependent strategies of coping with stress were identified. Male and female martial arts athletes used denial, focus on and venting of emotions, substance use, and acceptance. Additionally, men used self-blame and women used behavioural disengagement. Conclusions: The effects of the pandemic do not involve an increase in subjectively perceived psychological stress among martial arts athletes from countries variously affected by the pandemic. The use of maladaptive coping strategies – denial, substance use, venting negative emotion etc. – allows for lowering the subjectively experienced stress (the emotional tension, external stress and intrapsychic stress) of martial arts athletes. It was the use of these strategies which facilitated lower stress levels. The second hypothesis, that martial arts athletes will less frequently use problem-focused strategies of coping with stress, such as active coping and planning, during the height of the pandemic, was confirmed

Stress and coping during the COVID-19 pandemic among martial arts athletes – a cross-cultural study

Background and Study Aims: Success in sports among athletes on a similar level of skill can depend on individual differences in experienced stress and coping strategies. The COVID-19 pandemic has affected many areas of life, including sports. The aim of the current study was to verify two hypotheses: (H1) emotional tension, external stress, and intrapsychic stress among martial arts athletes will be significantly higher during the height of the pandemic than in the pre-pandemic period; (H2) martial arts athletes will less frequently use problem-focused strategies of coping with stress, such as active coping and planning, during the height of the pandemic. Materials and Methods: The study used the Perception of Stress Questionnaire measuring the following dimensions of stress: emotional tension, external stress, and intrapsychic stress. Coping strategies were measured with the Brief COPE questionnaire distinguishing 14 coping strategies. Seven hundred and eighty-one athletes (including 116 martial arts athletes) from Poland, Romania, and Slovakia took part in the study in the pre-pandemic period. During the height of the pandemic, athletes from Hungary, Indonesia, Iran, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, and Spain took part in the study (n = 1032, including 396 martial arts athletes). Results: Higher levels of emotional tension, external stress, and intrapsychic stress were observed among Polish and Romanian martial arts athletes in the pre-pandemic period. Stress levels were higher before the pandemic than during its peak, when the lowest levels of emotional tension and external stress were reported by martial arts athletes in Romania, and the highest – in Lithuania and Spain. On the other hand, the lowest levels of intrapsychic stress were reported by martial arts athletes in Poland, and the highest – in Lithuania. Key gender-dependent strategies of coping with stress were identified. Male and female martial arts athletes used denial, focus on and venting of emotions, substance use, and acceptance. Additionally, men used self-blame and women used behavioural disengagement. Conclusions: The effects of the pandemic do not involve an increase in subjectively perceived psychological stress among martial arts athletes from countries variously affected by the pandemic. The use of maladaptive coping strategies – denial, substance use, venting negative emotion etc. – allows for lowering the subjectively experienced stress (the emotional tension, external stress and intrapsychic stress) of martial arts athletes. It was the use of these strategies which facilitated lower stress levels. The second hypothesis, that martial arts athletes will less frequently use problem-focused strategies of coping with stress, such as active coping and planning, during the height of the pandemic, was confirmed

The English-speaking, Hungarian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Romanian, Russian, Slovak, and Spanish adaptations of Makarowski’s Stimulating and Instrumental Risk Questionnaire for martial arts athletes

Background and Study Aim: The competition is an unique event which supposes pressure, social and financial stake, in these conditions increasing the athletes’ probability of getting injured. And this probability is higher in the case of new and inexperienced athletes, in which case (mainly), the win-at-all-costs philosophy may lead to less calculated risks. The goal of the current study is recommendation to researchers, coaches of various martial arts (combat sports) disciplines, physical education teachers, and psychologists with a measure of stimulating and instrumental risk. Adapting the S&IRQ will allow for assessing athletes in terms of sports risk Material and Methods: The Hungarian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Romanian, Russian, Slovak, Spanish, and English adaptation of Makarowski’s Stimulating and Instrumental Risk Questionnaire (S&IRQ) was made. Two types of risk are discussed: (a) stimulating risk, which focuses on the experience of pleasurable physiological stimulation, and (b) instrumental risk, which is a goal-oriented strategy/tactics. Our study has also a cross-sectional nature, analyzing the results for instrumental and stimulating risk, in the case of eight groups of athletes. The questionnaire’s reliability and validity analyses on martial arts athletes from Hungary (n = 47), Latvia (n = 32), Lithuania (n = 47), English-speaking athletes from other countries (n = 58), Romania, (n = 61), Russia (n = 53), Slovakia (n = 29) and Spain (n = 25) was made. Reliability was measured using the Cronbach’s α internal consistency coefficient, which ranged from 0.69 to 0.83. A confirmatory factor analysis was used to verify the questionnaire’s internal structure. Results: Results of research using the eight versions of the S&IRQ indicate that the measure possesses good psychometric properties and can be used in international research. Also, single-factor analysis of variance revealed significant differences between the groups of athletes. Romanian athletes achieved the highest mean scores for the stimulating risk scale, while athletes from Spain achieved the lowest results. Considering the instrumental risk, Spanish athletes registered the highest score and athletes from Russia the lowest values. Conclusions: The S&IRQ can be used in international studies, as part of psychological training by sport psychologists, coaches, martial arts athletes, athletes from various sport disciplines, for their professional and personal development. The appendix includes Arabic, Chinese, English, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Indian (Martahai and Hindi), Indonesian, Italian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Macedonian, Moldavian, Persian, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Russian, Slovak and Spanish versions of the S&IRQ for martial arts athletes, together with the norms for both women and men

The English-speaking, Hungarian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Romanian, Russian, Slovak, and Spanish adaptations of Makarowski’s Stimulating and Instrumental Risk Questionnaire for martial arts athletes

Background and Study Aim: The competition is an unique event which supposes pressure, social and financial stake, in these conditions increasing the athletes’ probability of getting injured. And this probability is higher in the case of new and inexperienced athletes, in which case (mainly), the win-at-all-costs philosophy may lead to less calculated risks. The goal of the current study is recommendation to researchers, coaches of various martial arts (combat sports) disciplines, physical education teachers, and psychologists with a measure of stimulating and instrumental risk. Adapting the S&IRQ will allow for assessing athletes in terms of sports risk. Material and Methods: The Hungarian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Romanian, Russian, Slovak, Spanish, and English adaptation of Makarowski’s Stimulating and Instrumental Risk Questionnaire (S&IRQ) was made. Two types of risk are discussed: (a) stimulating risk, which focuses on the experience of pleasurable physiological stimulation, and (b) instrumental risk, which is a goal-oriented strategy/tactics. Our study has also a cross-sectional nature, analyzing the results for instrumental and stimulating risk, in the case of eight groups of athletes. The questionnaire’s reliability and validity analyses on martial arts athletes from Hungary (n = 47), Latvia (n = 32), Lithuania (n = 47), English-speaking athletes from other countries (n = 58), Romania, (n = 61), Russia (n = 53), Slovakia (n = 29) and Spain (n = 25) was made. Reliability was measured using the Cronbach’s α internal consistency coefficient, which ranged from 0.69 to 0.83. A confirmatory factor analysis was used to verify the questionnaire’s internal structure. Results: Results of research using the eight versions of the S&IRQ indicate that the measure possesses good psychometric properties and can be used in international research. Also, single-factor analysis of variance revealed significant differences between the groups of athletes. Romanian athletes achieved the highest mean scores for the stimulating risk scale, while athletes from Spain achieved the lowest results. Considering the instrumental risk, Spanish athletes registered the highest score and athletes from Russia the lowest values. Conclusions: The S&IRQ can be used in international studies, as part of psychological training by sport psychologists, coaches, martial arts athletes, athletes from various sport disciplines, for their professional and personal development. The appendix includes Arabic, Chinese, English, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Indian (Martahai and Hindi), Indonesian, Italian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Macedonian, Moldavian, Persian, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Russian, Slovak and Spanish versions of the S&IRQ for martial arts athletes, together with the norms for both women and men

The Hungarian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Polish, Romanian, Russian, Slovak, and Spanish, adaptation of the Makarowski's Aggression Questionnaire for martial arts athletes

Background and Study Aim: Studying aggression and aggressiveness among martial arts athletes allows for identifying aspects of the training process, important for the professional and personal development. Makarowski's Aggression Questionnaire has only been published in English in 2013. The aim of the current study is recommendation to researchers, coaches of various martial arts (combat sports) disciplines, physical education teachers, and sports psychologists with a measure of aggressiveness. Material and Methods: The Hungarian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Polish, Romanian, Russian, Slovak, and Spanish adaptation of Makarowski’s Aggression Questionnaire was used. The questionnaire measures the following dimensions of aggressiveness: “Go-ahead” (the athlete attacks, breaks obstacles, is courageous and see obstacles as challenges to be overcomed), “Foul play” (the athlete has no scruples, is willing to blame others in order to achieve his/ her goal or to block them, often in an unethical manner – for example, by pushing an opponent on the field) and “Assertiveness” (the athlete expresses his/ her opinion and emotions directly, in a courageous way and within appropriate boundaries - for example, a critical feedback to peers or to the coach). The questionnaire’s reliability and validity analyses on martial arts athletes from Hungary (n = 50), Latvia (n = 31), Lithuania (n = 51), Poland (n = 49), Romania, (n = 53), Russia (n = 55), Slovakia (n = 30) and Spain (n = 24) were made. Reliability was assessed using the Cronbach’s α internal consistency coefficient, which ranged from 0.67 to 0.85 for the individual subscales. The test’s internal structure was verified via confirmatory factor analysis. Results: The adapted versions of Makarowski’s Aggression Questionnaire have good psychometric properties and can be used in international studies. Also, single-factor analysis of variance highlighted that martial arts athletes from Spain achieved the highest mean on the Go-ahead subscale, martial arts athletes from Latvia achieved the highest mean on the Foul play subscale, while martial arts athletes from Poland obtained the highest values on the Assertiveness subscale. Considering the lowest Go-ahead scores, these were observed in martial arts athletes from Romania, the lowest Foul play scores - in martial arts athletes from Spain, and the lowest Assertiveness values – in martial arts athletes from Hungary. Conclusions: In accordance with the general methodological standards, the questionnaire can be used in coaching practice, as part of psychological skills training and in international research. The appendix includes Arabic, Chinese, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Indian (Martahai and Hindi), Indonesian, Italian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Macedonian, Persian, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian (implicitely Moldavian), Russian, Slovak and Spanish versions of the Makarowski’s Aggression Questionnaire for martial arts athletes, together with the norms for both women and men